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INTRACTABLE
PROBLEMS OF
HUMAN
RIGHTS
C H A I R O F A F R I C A N L E G A L S T U D I E S
A C O L L E C T I O N O F E S S A Y S
O N H U M A N T R A F F I C K I N G
I N A F R I C A
Chair of African Legal Studies, B IX, Room No. 42, Universitätsstr. 30, 95447 Bayreuth,
0921 55-4336, Thoko.Kaime@uni-bayreuth.de
www.africanlegalstudies.uni-bayreuth.de
Collection of Essays: Your Voice in Tackling Human
Trafficking in Africa
Gift Gawanani Mauluka & Thoko Kaime
Editors
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Table of Contents
Editors and Development Process ............................................................................................... iii
Contributors Biographies ..............................................................................................................i
Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................ iii
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. iv
Aristid Banyurwahe & Gift Gawanani Mauluka ............................................................................. iv
Overview of the essays ................................................................................................................. iv
Outlook and Invitation to Dialogue ............................................................................................. vi
EXPERIENTIAL METHODS OF DEALING WITH HUMAN TRAFFICKING ................................1
Ejiroghene Ogoye Okparavero& Prudence Adula Okparavero ........................................................1
BEYOND BORDERS: TACKLING HUMAN TRAFFICKING THROUGH STRUCTURAL
REFORM, REGIONAL COOPERATION, AND COMMUNITY RESILIENCE .............................. 12
Gerald Mandisodza ....................................................................................................................... 12
RURAL-URBAN TRAFFICKING OF GIRLS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA: TRENDS AND
EFFECTS IN THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA. .............................................................. 21
Nicodemus U. Msika ..................................................................................................................... 21
WEAVING THE SHIELD TO TACKLE THE ACHE OF HUMAN TRAFFICKING IN AFRICA..... 30
Grace. N. Sitati ............................................................................................................................. 30
TRANSFERABLE IDEAS OR INNOVATION FOR TACKLING HUMAN TRAFFICKING .......... 40
Ihuoma Okorie .............................................................................................................................. 40
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Editors and Development Process
The volume is co-edited by Prof. Thoko Kaime and Gift Gawanani Mauluka. Prof. Dr Thoko
Kaime is the holder of the Chair of African Legal Studies at the University of Bayreuth. He is
an internationally recognized expert in public international law with a research focus on
international human rights law and international environmental law. His work is characterized
by an interdisciplinary approach that focuses on the interfaces between law, legitimacy, and
public participation in international rulemaking and implementation processes.
Prof. Kaime also heads the research project 'Intractable Human Rights Problems,' which
addresses persistent human rights violations that persist despite existing legal frameworks. In
particular, the project examines the persistent challenges in human trafficking and child labor
in Africa.
Gift Mauluka is a PhD candidate at the University of Bayreuth. His research interests are
children's rights, gender equality and climate change. He is currently working on a research
project interrogating the legal and non-legal instruments in tackling child labour in Malawi. His
work employs social legal research methods and unorthodox approaches to understanding
human rights problems. He is working as a Research Assistant under the research project
'Intractable Human Rights Problems.'
Chair of African Legal Studies, B IX, Room No. 42, Universitätsstr. 30, 95447 Bayreuth,
0921 55-4336, Thoko.Kaime@uni-bayreuth.de
www.africanlegalstudies.uni-bayreuth.de
Contributors Biographies
Ejiroghene Ogoye Okparavero is a Legal Practitioner, Notary Public, ADR Practitioner and a
Principal Studies Fellow of the National Judicial Institute Abuja. With over 17 years post-call
to the Nigerian Bar, he has carved a niche for himself in Corporate Commercial Law. He has a
license in Alternative Dispute Resolution, specializing in Arbitration and Mediation services.
He is also a licensed project manager. His interest in academics spans across contemporary
procedural law.
Prudence Adula Okparavero is a Senior Research Fellow with the Nigerian Institute of
Advanced Legal Studies (NIALS). A Notary Public with over eighteen years post-call to the
Nigerian bar, she was in active legal practice. As an academic with a specialized Master’s
Degree in Legislative Drafting, her area of interest is Legislative Drafting and Criminal Justice.
She has been locally and internationally published in several books and journals, worked on
numerous academic projects, and attended, facilitated, and taught seminars, workshops, and
conferences. She is actively involved in lecturing and supervising postgraduate students, as well
as consulting, editing journal articles, drafting, and scrutinizing bills.
Gerald Mandisodza is a socio-legal scholar and social justice advocate pursuing a PhD in Law
at the University of the Western Cape, South Africa. His research examines how rural women’s
choices of dispute resolution impact the development of traditional law institutions and enhance
women’s property rights in South Africa, with a focus on the Vhembe District in Limpopo. He
holds an MA in Labour Policy and Globalisation from the University of the Witwatersrand,
where he investigated internal democracy and social movement unionism within South Africa’s
trade unions, with a focus on the National Union of Metalworkers of South Africa (NUMSA).
Gerald’s work lies at the intersection of law, gender equality, and social justice, addressing
critical issues in democracy, human rights, and labour advocacy. Passionate about empowering
marginalized communities, he contributes to advancing equity and social justice.
Nicodemus U. Msika is pursuing a Master of Laws (LL.M) in Regional Integration and EAC
Law at the Tanzania-German Centre for Eastern Legal Studies (TGCL) at the University of Dar
es Salaam School of Law. Additionally, Mr. Msika is pursuing a Master of Intellectual Property
(MIP) at the University of Dar es Salaam School of Law in Tanzania, a member of the United
Republic of Tanzania. Mr. Msika's research interests lie in Human Rights, International
Humanitarian Law, Public International Law, Regional Integration, and Intellectual Property.
Grace N. Sitati is an Advocate of the High Court of Kenya and a Member of the Chartered
Institute of Arbitrators (M-CIArb). She holds an LL.M. in Regional Integration and East African
Community Law from the University of Dar-es-Salaam, a Postgraduate Diploma from the
Kenya School of Law, and an LL.B. from Moi University. Her academic and professional
interests include regional integration, constitutional law, business and human rights, anti-
corruption, legislative drafting, and alternative dispute resolution. She is committed to
advancing human rights, protecting vulnerable groups, and promoting good governance,
institutional accountability and the rule of law through research, advocacy, litigation, and policy
engagement for regional development.
Ihuoma Okorie is a lecturer in the Department of Theatre and Performing Arts at Bayero
University, Kano. She holds a Master's and Bachelor's degree in Theatre and Performing Arts.
She also obtained a Postgraduate Diploma in Education Certificate from the Niger State College
of Education, Minna, Nigeria, and is a member of the Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria
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(TRCN). She has published works in reputable journals and has attended several National and
International conferences. She also has three books in print titled "Family Moulding Whither
Choices and Outcomes" (2020), "Heed" (2022), and "Soiled Hands" (2024). Her teaching
interests include Scriptwriting, Playwriting, and Film Analysis. This has led her to numerous
volunteer opportunities. She is a fellow of the Ife Institute of Advanced Studies (IIAS) and the
Global Arts in Medicine (GAiMF). In her free time, she plays volleyball and Tennis.
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Acknowledgments
This collection of essays is the outcome of research conducted within the Africa Multiple
Cluster of Excellence at the University of Bayreuth, funded by the Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) under Germany’s Excellence
Strategy – EXC 2052/1 – 390713894. It is produced under the Intractable Human Rights Project
at the Chair of African Legal Studies. We acknowledge all the authors who contributed to the
essay writing competition, whose essays will be published on the Africanlegalstudiesblog.
Special thanks also go to Aristid Banyurwahe, Diana Schmidt, Nelson Otieno, Ange Doreen
Irakoze, Isabelle Zundel and Josephine Astfalk for their insights in the review and editing of
the submissions.
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INTRODUCTION
Aristid Banyurwahe & Gift Gawanani Mauluka
Human Trafficking is one of the most relevant forms of human rights abuse and has its effects
on the African continent in several ways. Overseas transit metropoles, slums, and big port cities,
as well as rural areas that are hardly accessible for human rights defenders, are the scenes of
action for forced prostitution, exploitative child labor, and forced recruitment of young children
to non-state armed groups. Nigeria is just one prominent example with an estimated 750,000 to
1 million people forced into begging, prostitution, domestic servitude, armed conflict and
labour exploitation.1
Despite existing international agreements to tackle this issue, numerous legislations at domestic
levels, and a broad number of aid projects in this area, there are still notable deficits in the
prevention and prosecution of human trafficking. These deficits result from insufficient
involvement of communities that are particularly vulnerable to human trafficking in creating
strategies to combat this issue, bureaucratic hurdles, and insufficient collaborations between
state institutions and civil society organizations.2
This collection of essays gives a voice to upcoming African researchers, who portray systemic
failures as well as potential solution approaches. Including African voices has two benefits here:
On the one hand, it ensures epistemic justice. On the other hand, through this combination of
theoretical and practical approaches, these essays better reflect on-ground realities.
The collection at hand comprises five excellent essays submitted in response to the essay
writing competition 'Your Voice in Tackling Human Trafficking in Africa.' The competition was
organized and advertised by the Chair of African Legal Studies at the University of Bayreuth,
Germany, a leading institution in the field, and funded by the Africa Multiple Cluster of
Excellence. The competition addressed students, civil society actors, activists, and young
researchers from the African Union's member states. The goal was to provide young people
from the continent, whose voices are underrepresented in the global discourse on human
trafficking, with the opportunity to share their perspectives. Due to their originality, the selected
contributions can all enrich the discourse on African human trafficking.
Key Questions and Objectives
The following questions form the conceptual basis for the following contributions:
1. Empowerment and prevention: How can young people be guiding forces in the fight
against human trafficking?
2. Community-based interventions: What role do local networks, notably Civil Society
Organizations, play in establishing adequate support and reporting mechanisms?
3. Innovation potential: To what extent do technological advances open sustainable
approaches to lower the vulnerability of potential victims and break through existing
structures?
Overview of the essays
In their essay ‘Experiential Methods of Dealing with Human Trafficking,’ Ejiroghene Ogoye
Okparavero and Prudence Adula Okparavero focus on experimental, multidisciplinary
1 Eromo Egbejule, ''I miss home': 13-year-old Nigerian girls trapped and exploited in Ivory Coast sex industry' The
Guardian (Abuja, 26 August 2024).
2 Jeanine Nshimirimana, 'Challenges Facing the East African Community in the Effective Implementation of
Human
Trafficking
Laws
within
the
Region'
(2024)
8(2)
IJRISS
<https://rsisinternational.org/journals/ijriss/articles/challenges-facing-the-east-african-comunity-in-the-effective-
implementation-of-human-trafficking-laws-within-the-region/> accessed 27 May 2025.
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interventions that extend beyond traditional legal measures. Based on the proposal of poverty
alleviation programs, public health initiatives, and data-driven approaches, the authors argue
that a combination of anti-terrorism measures and social welfare provides more effective
protection against exploitation than isolated policymaking. This essay is based on a literature
review and analyses of international legal frameworks, an evaluation of innovative
experimental projects, an examination of case studies, and policy comparisons.
In his essay 'Beyond Borders: Tackling Human Trafficking through Structural Reform,
Regional Cooperation, and Community Resilience,' Gerald Mandisodza analyses the complex
problem of human trafficking in the SADC region. Based on a case study of a trafficked girl
from Zimbabwe, Mandisodza analyses structural weaknesses in national legal systems and
shows that effective countermeasures can only be achieved through a combination of structural
reform, cross-border cooperation, and strengthening the resilience of local communities. His
methodological approach includes a qualitative case analysis, the evaluation of relevant legal
norms, and a critical reflection on international standards such as the Palermo Protocol.
In his essay 'Rural-Urban Trafficking of Girls in Sub-Saharan Africa: Trends and Effects in the
United Republic of Tanzania', Nicodemus Msika draws attention to the underestimated link
between rural poverty and urban exploitation. The focus is on young girls who are lured to cities
under the pretext of education or employment and forced into domestic labor or sexual
exploitation. The study combines statistical analyses of poverty and education data with an
examination of national legislation and qualitative studies to highlight structural risk factors
and protection gaps in the Tanzanian system.
The essay 'Weaving the Shield to Tackle the Ache of Human Trafficking in Africa' by Grace
Sitati approaches the topic from an international legal and political perspective. It emphasizes
the need for coordinated partnerships in the combat against human trafficking. Using legal
benchmarks and examples of good practice, the author demonstrates that neither national solo
efforts nor mere legislative reforms are sufficient. Instead, close interaction between
international norms, regional legislation, and civil society engagement is required. The essay is
based on doctrinal legal analysis, supplemented by comparative policy analysis and exemplary
case studies of successful public-private partnerships.
In the last essay, ‘Transferable Ideas or Innovation for Tackling Human Trafficking,’ Okorie
Ihuoma explains that the sustainable prevention of human trafficking in African societies cannot
be achieved solely through legal prohibitions and criminal prosecution, but rather, above all,
through a ‘bottom-up’ approach. Based on proverbs, personal experiences, and observations,
she demonstrates how values such as individual responsibility, contentment, cultural pride, and
cultural awareness can be systematically integrated into schools, parental homes, religious
communities, and social media to make young people resistant to exploitative structures. Her
methodological approach is auto-ethnographic as she uses qualitative reflections on her cultural
values as an empirical basis, supplemented by literature-based contextualization.
Target Audience
This edited collection is addressed to:
1. Academics in law, social science, and political science who are looking for
interdisciplinary analyses,
2. Practitioners in non-governmental organizations, faith-based initiatives, and politics
need concrete methods for prevention and intervention,
3. Decision-makers in governments and funding organizations who want to implement
evidence-based models and
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4. Students who want to gain practical insight into research and advocacy on human
trafficking.
Outlook and Invitation to Dialogue
With this publication, we are opening an open space for discourse in which research and practice
go hand in hand. The contributions collected here offer a wide range of perspectives and
approaches - from empowerment strategies and community-based prevention to technological
and economic innovation potential. We invite you to not only read the following essays but also
to think further about their concepts, apply them in your context and develop them further in
dialogue with other stakeholders.
Only through collective commitment, interdisciplinary cooperation, and the courage to explore
new avenues can human trafficking in Africa be combated sustainably and real prospects
opened for the people affected.
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EXPERIENTIAL METHODS OF DEALING WITH HUMAN TRAFFICKING
Ejiroghene Ogoye Okparavero & Prudence Adula Okparavero
1. Introduction
Regarded as the world’s third-largest crime, human trafficking is an activity that is globally
condemned.1 It is a pervasive global issue that involves the exploitation of individuals for forced
labour, sexual exploitation and other forms of servitude.2 Despite significant efforts to combat
this crime, traditional methods fall short in addressing human trafficking due to its multifaceted
nature. There is a growing interest in experimental methods that can offer innovative solutions
to this pressing challenge.3
To discuss these experimental methods and related issues, this paper is divided into six parts.
After the introduction, the second part provides an overview of human trafficking. The third
and fourth parts of the paper, respectively, highlight previous efforts in addressing human
trafficking and the results achieved so far. Rather than relying on conventional approaches, this
paper adopts a nuanced analysis of the underlying factors that perpetuate human trafficking,
proposing innovative solutions to address these challenges.
Building on existing jurisdictional approaches to anti-human trafficking efforts, the fifth part
of the paper undertakes a critical examination of their efficacy. It identifies opportunities for
experimental interventions to augment these efforts in Nigeria. The paper concludes with the
sixth part.
2. An overview of Human Trafficking
Human Trafficking has been described as the modern analogue of slavery,4 as it takes the guise
of slavery in modern times. The old form- ‘slavery’ is marked with legal ownership or long-
term enslavement. While the new form of slavery- ‘human trafficking’ is marked by temporary
ownership, debt bondage, forced labour and hyper-exploitative contractual arrangements,5 as
desperate and vulnerable people are treated as ‘commodities’ to make economic gains.6 This
indicates that the act of commoditisation of humans, as in slavery, has not changed; only the
methods have been altered. In fact, there is more slavery now than in the days of slave trade.7
In 2021, there were an estimated 50 million victims of modern slavery in the world, more than
were enslaved during the Transatlantic Slave Trade.8
1 Sandra Keefer “Human trafficking and the impact on National Security in the United States” (Strategy Research
Project 2006) < https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA448573.pdf > accessed 16 December 2024; Francis
Miko, Trafficking in Women and Children: The US and International Response, ( Library of
Congress, Washington, DC 2004).
2 Trafficking in Persons (Prohibition) Enforcement and Administration Act, 2015, s 82
3Ella Cockbain and Edward Kleemans. “Innovations in Empirical Research into Human Trafficking: Introduction
to the Special Edition.” (2019) Crime, law, and social change vol. 72.1
4 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2009. Hereinafter ‘UNODC
2009’.
5 Bales Kevin, Understanding Global Slavery: A Reader (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005) p 17
6Maggy Lee ‘Introduction: Understanding human trafficking’ in Lee Maggy (ed.) Human trafficking (Routledge
2013) 3
7 Bales Kevin, ‘Expendable People: Slavery in the Age of Globalization’ (2000) 53(2) Journal of International
Affairs 461.
8 Katharine Bryant and Todd Landman, 'Combatting Human Trafficking since Palermo: What Do We Know about
What Works?' (2020) 6 Journal of Human Trafficking 119.
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In order to address human trafficking as a distinct offence, the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress
and Punish Trafficking in Persons was adopted.9 The core objective of the protocol is to prevent
human trafficking, prosecute offenders and protect victims.10 Article 3(a) defines trafficking in
persons as an action being the recruitment, transportation, harbouring or receipt of persons, by
a means of coercion, abduction, deception or abuse of power or vulnerability, for the ‘purpose’
of exploitation. It further provides that exploitation at a minimum includes sexual exploitation,
forced labour, slavery, and slavery-like practices. In fact, several forms of exploitation have
been found to take place in illegal markets such as the supply of human beings for several
activities like forced labour, forced criminal activities, sexual exploitation, forced begging,
harvesting of organs, armed conflicts (e.g., child soldiers),11 and fraudulent adoption.12These
activities are not limited to the illegal circle, and they also occur in legal workplaces such as
restaurants, hotels,13 factories, and farms.
The Palermo Protocol provides for states parties to criminalize human trafficking and to punish
the attempt to commit, take part in, or organize offenses related to it.14 Nigeria, as a signatory
to the Protocol, has ratified it via the Trafficking in Persons (Prohibition) Enforcement and
Administration Act (TIPPEA). The Act’s definition of trafficking in persons adopted the
definition of the Palermo Protocol but expanded the term ‘exploitation’ to include pornography
and the buying and selling of human beings.15 It laudably provides that forced labour and the
employment of a child as a domestic worker be criminalised.16
3. Efforts in dealing with human trafficking: A jurisdictional approach.
Since the adoption of the Palermo Protocol, numerous efforts from non-government and
government agencies have strived to combat the phenomenon of human trafficking through
legal-institutional means, direct interventions, and programs of support for those exploited.17
The Kenyan government has identified an increased number of trafficked persons and has
provided direct services or referrals to non-governmental organization (NGO) for their care. It
has also developed a comprehensive bench book to enhance judicial proceedings in labour
trafficking cases.18 Furthermore, the government established guidelines for the disbursement of
funds from the National Assistance Trust Fund for Assisting Victims of Trafficking, utilizing
the fund to support the economic reintegration of trafficking survivors. Additionally, the
government actively solicited feedback from survivors, particularly those exploited in Gulf
states, to inform and refine its anti-trafficking efforts.19
9 UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children,
Supplementing the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime (United Nations:
A/RES/55/25, Annex II, 2000). Hereafter ‘Palermo protocol’.
10 Article 2 Palermo Protocol.
11 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 'Trafficking in Persons Protocol to the United Nations Convention
against Transnational Organized Crime' (2000) UN Doc A/RES/55/25, art 3.
12The outright sale of newborns through a sham called ‘cryptic pregnancy’- this is child trafficking. See, BBC
News, 'Nigeria's Miracle Baby Scammers - BBC Africa Eye Documentary' (YouTube, 25 November 2024)
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r62xSGw3kcI) accessed 29 November 2024.
13 Eliana Lourenco, Mariana Goncalves and Marlene Matos, 'Trafficking in Human Beings: Portuguese
Magistrates' Perceptions' [2019] 5 Journal of Human Trafficking 238.
14 Article 5, Palermo Protocol
15 Trafficking in Persons (Prohibition) Enforcement and Administration Act (TIPPEA) Act, s17 and 21.
16 Fatima Waziri-Azi, 'The Interplay between Corruption and Human Trafficking Epidemic: Implications and
Solutions for Nigeria' (Nigerian Institute of Advanced Legal Studies’ Inaugural Lecture) (2024) 9.
17 Katharine Bryant and Todd Landman (n10).
18 United States Department of State, Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, 2023 Trafficking in
Persons Report – Kenya (2023).
19 Ibid.
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Nigeria's efforts to combat human trafficking are spearheaded by the National Agency for the
Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP). The Agency is mandated to have specialized
departments, such as Investigation, Counselling and Rehabilitation, Public Enlightenment, and
Legal and Prosecution. NAPTIP has four Ps strategies: Prevention, Protection, Prosecution, and
Partnership.20
Over the years, NAPTIP has implemented various initiatives to counter human trafficking,
including legislative and policy reforms, prevention campaigns, victim identification,
assistance programs, investigation and prosecution of traffickers, and capacity-building.
NAPTIP actively sought partnerships with international entities, such as the United Nations
Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and the International Organization for Migration (IOM),
to harness collective expertise, resources, and support in the fight against human trafficking.21
Notably, Nigeria has achieved significant milestones, including being the first African country
to secure convictions for anti-trafficking, with a total of 510 convictions to date.22 In Raji v
FRN,23 the prosecution secured conviction against the accused who trafficked the victim to
Kuwait under the guise of obtaining employment as an artist. However, on arrival, the victim
was placed in the custody of two women who engaged the victim in forced labour and sold her
from one person to another. The appeal was further dismissed for lack of merit.24
In 2024, Nigeria’s efforts to combat human trafficking have been intensified through enhanced
collaboration with international partners on law enforcement activities. Furthermore, the
implementation of a handover protocol facilitates the referral of children associated with armed
groups, including trafficking victims, to receive necessary care. To elevate the quality of
services provided to victims and ensure consistency in care standards, NAPTIP has established
and launched comprehensive guidelines and minimum standards for service providers
supporting trafficking victims.25
In Europe, Germany has strengthened its anti-trafficking efforts by enhancing its victim
identification system, conducting awareness campaigns, and improving law enforcement
cooperation with non-governmental organisations (NGOs).26 The government also increased
investigations, prosecutions, victim assistance, and identified more trafficking victims.27
While Portugal, has notably intensified investigations and prosecutions of suspected traffickers,
as well as identification and assistance of presumed trafficking victims. Furthermore,
comprehensive training programs have been consistently delivered to various officials. At the
same time, law enforcement agencies have actively participated in international collaborations,
yielding positive results in identifying potential victims and apprehending suspects.28
4. Do the current Anti-Trafficking Efforts Truly Deliver?
20 National Action Plan on Human Trafficking in Nigeria 2022-2026.
21 Emmanuel Idemor Ukhami, Agaba Halidu and Lauretta Azegbeye Achudume, 'The Role of the National Agency
for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP) in Combating Human Trafficking in Nigeria' [2024] 2(2)
Journal of Political Discourse 175.
22 National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP), NAPTIP Data (December 2021)
23 (2019) LPELR-47182(CA).
24 See also Ologbe v FRN (2024) LPELR (CA); Bassey v AG Federation (2015) LPELR-40425(CA); Ogundare v
State of Lagos (2023) LPELR-60340(CA); see Ologbe v FRN (2024) LPELR (CA).
25 United States Department of State, Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, 2024 Trafficking in
Persons Report – Nigeria (2024).
26 United States Department of State, Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, 2023 Trafficking in
Persons Report – Germany (2023).
27 United States Department of State, Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, 2024 Trafficking in
Persons Report – Germany (2024).
28 United States Department of State, Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, 2024 Trafficking in
Persons Report – Portugal (2024).
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Denton agrees that the implementation of anti-trafficking initiatives has led to a surge in the
number of traffickers apprehended, as well as increased numbers of trafficked individuals
identified by law enforcement.29 However, Bales posits that despite the anti-human trafficking
initiatives which has raised awareness and increased funding, more work needs to be done as
organizations still grapple with how best to combat human trafficking.30
The Kenyan government fell short of minimum standards in several areas.31 Its Victim
protection services, especially for adults, were limited and inconsistent. The government relied
heavily on civil society for victim services, but did not provide adequate support. Official
complicity in trafficking remained a concern, with no reported action against implicated
officials. Efforts to protect Kenyan victims abroad, particularly in Gulf countries, were also
limited.32
While the Nigerian government failed to meet minimum standards in several critical areas,
corruption, including among NAPTIP officials and the judiciary, remained a significant
concern, perpetuating impunity for traffickers. Waziri classified the levels of corruption related
to human trafficking into four. The first is bribery of law enforcement officers, obstructing
investigations and prosecutions. The ripple effect of this act undermines due process and
evidentiary integrity. It further violates victims' rights to justice and state protection under
domestic and international law. Secondly, the complicity of government officials, providing
fake travel documents and ignoring victims' exploitation, is a high level of corruption that
promotes trafficking in persons. This amounts to both administrative misconduct and criminal
complicity.33The third category identified is obstruction of justice, including evidence
tampering and witness intimidation. This is a violation of international standards of fair trial
under Article 14 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). The
implication is acquittals or delayed justice, emboldening traffickers and weakening deterrence.
Lastly, corruption in recruitment agencies and immigration processes enables traffickers to
exploit victims.34 Border security and international cooperation frameworks, such as ECOWAS
Free Movement Protocols, are in turn undermined.
In fact, the government's anti-trafficking efforts waned, with fewer investigations and
prosecutions compared to the previous period. Moreover, the government's efforts to identify
and protect vulnerable populations, including internally displaced persons, women, children,
and those exploited in begging rings, were found to be inadequate.35
Scholars confirm that despite the increasing attention and collaborative efforts directed toward
combating human trafficking, challenges persist. These challenges range from the complexities
of transnational cooperation and limited resources to the evolving nature of the crime itself.
Therefore, it becomes essential to evaluate the effectiveness of NAPTIP in combating human
trafficking in Nigeria.36
29 Erin Denton, 'Anatomy of Offending: Human Trafficking in the United States, 2006-2011' [2016] 2 Journal of
Human Trafficking 32-33.
30 Bales Kevin, Understanding Global Slavery: A Reader (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005) p 17
31 Kenya and Nigeria are on the Tier 2 Watch List of the U.S Department of State, this implies that the country
meets the minimum standard in the aspect of compliance to international best practise of anti-human trafficking
laws.
32 United States Department of State, Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, 2023 Trafficking in
Persons Report – Kenya (2023).
33 See Section 7 of the Advance Fee Fraud and Other Related Offences Act and NAPTIP Act
34 Fatima Waziri-Azi, (n 16).
35 United States Department of State, Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, 2024 Trafficking in
Persons Report – Nigeria (2024)
36 Emmanuel Idemor Ukhami (n 21).
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Bryant suggests that post-Palermo, it is imperative to assess progress and re-examine the
question, “what works to combat human trafficking?37 This paper aims to address this question
by examining innovative/ experimental approaches employed by other countries and proposed
by scholars, to identify promising practices for future interventions.
5. Experimental/Innovative methods of dealing with human trafficking in Nigeria
1. Poverty Alleviation as a Critical Strategy in Combating Human Trafficking
Poverty is often regarded as the “root cause” of trafficking.38 Human trafficking involves
individuals utilizing the vulnerability of others as a mode of financial gain.39 It is a demand-
driven phenomenon, as there is an existing market that demands victims from the traffickers.40
Statistics show that 20.9 million persons were trafficked for forced labour in 201241 and 45.8
million people in 201642 while in 2021 the number has climbed to 50 million people.43
Typically, individuals residing in environments characterized by poverty, limited opportunities,
and pervasive inequality and discrimination are more susceptible to recruitment by traffickers.
The confluence of economic, political, and social factors in these environments creates a
heightened sense of insecurity, thereby increasing the risk of exploitation.44The pull factors
include perceived images of opportunities for employment or better living conditions.45 Hence,
traffickers deliberately target and exploit vulnerable individuals by manipulating their
weaknesses.
To tackle this issue, scholars have canvassed for a more pragmatic approach and proposed
Oxfam GB's perspective on the issue of trafficking in women within the framework of its
poverty reduction approach.46 This model adopts a survivor-centered approach to combating
human trafficking, focusing on the vulnerabilities of women.47 There is a growing recognition
of the need for a convergence of human trafficking and human development policies. However,
it has been observed that the evaluation of the development impact of anti-trafficking initiatives
is still in its nascent stages. This presents a fertile area for further academic research, which can
provide valuable insights and inform the development of evidence-based policies to effectively
address human trafficking.48
2. Leveraging Counter-Terrorism Strategies to Combat Human Trafficking
It is noted that the direct links between human trafficking and terrorism are hard to identify,
which can be attributed to the covert nature of the crime, thereby making it difficult to determine
37 Katharine Bryant and Todd Landman, 'Combatting Human Trafficking since Palermo: What Do We Know about
What Works?' (2020) 6(2) Journal of Human Trafficking 119.
38 Gergana Danailova-Trainor and Frank Laczko, 'Trafficking in Persons and Development: Towards Greater
Policy Coherence' (2010) 48(4) International Migration 38.
39 Hetal Pandya and Hemal Pandya, 'Racial Discrimination and Human Trafficking in India: Challenges Ahead'
(2011) 1(6) International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 97.
40 Llana, Sarah Miller ‘Mexico Massacre: How the Drug War is Pushing Cartels into Human Trafficking’ (30
August 2010). < http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Americas/2010/0830/Mexico-massacre-How-the-drug-war-is-
pushing-cartels-into-human-trafficking > accessed 1 December 2024.
41 ILO Trafficking in Persons Report 2012.
42 The Global Slavery Index 2016.
43 The Global Slavery Index 2021.
44 Michele Anne Clark, 'Trafficking in Persons: An Issue of Human Security' (2003) 4(2) Journal of Human
Development 247.
45 Ibid.
46 Ibid.
47 Ibid.
48 Ibid.
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the extent of the interaction between the two.49 Terrorism is an issue of global concern, and
human trafficking plays a growing role in the operation of the 21st century operations of
terrorist groups. Human trafficking enables child soldiers, domestic servants, sex slaves and
executioners and serves as a channel to launch its victims into more structured and well-
organized criminal activities.50
Armed conflicts amplify the risks of human trafficking for vulnerable populations by increasing
economic desperation, weakening the rule of law, decreasing the availability of social services,
and forcing people to flee for safety. Armed conflict typically and quickly results in an increase
in the demand for trafficking children for exploitative purposes.51
In Nigeria, reports indicate that Boko Haram has continued to forcibly recruit, abduct, and use
child soldiers as cooks, spies, messengers, bodyguards, armed combatants, and increasingly as
suicide bombers in attacks in Nigeria, Cameroon, and Chad.52 Amnesty International reported
that in 2017, Boko Haram used at least 158 children as human bombers. Contemporaneously,
it was reported that the group has disproportionately targeted and abducted women and girls
during their raids. The victims are subjected to rape, sexual violence, sexual slavery and forced
marriages.53
Therefore, it can be deduced that child/human trafficking plays a pivotal role in the ideological
expressions of terrorist groups, and without recruits, terrorist groups cannot thrive, as it is a
medium of terrorist recruitment. It is therefore imperative to address issues that make persons
vulnerable to human trafficking in the affected areas. It is crucial to enhance protection measures
to ensure victims, including women and children allegedly associated with armed groups, are not
inappropriately penalized solely for offenses committed as a direct result of being trafficked, and
prioritize their reintegration. This calls for a further collaboration between NAPTIP, NGOs and the
Nigerian Army.
3. The Strategic Role of Data in Combating Human Trafficking
Several limitations inherently challenge human trafficking research. A paramount concern is
the reliance on data sourced from law enforcement reports, case law, and records of trafficking
arrests and prosecutions. This constraint is further exacerbated by the anticipated prevalence of
unreported human trafficking crimes, which are likely to remain undetected and unaccounted
for in official statistics.54
Research shows that quantifiable data on human trafficking incidents results in further arrests
and prosecutions.55 Not only so, accurate data are critical for policymakers and legislators to
understand the impact of human trafficking in their jurisdictions and develop evidence-based
solutions to address this complex issue.
Past efforts to combat human trafficking have been hindered by a lack of comprehensive data,
with initiatives focusing on training and intervention neglecting statistical data collection. To
49 Howard, Russell D., and Colleen M. Traughber. "The ‘new silk roadof terrorism and organized crime: the key
to countering the terror-crime nexus."(2008) Armed Groups: Studies in National Security, Counterterrorism, and
Counterinsurgency: 371-387.
50 Christopher Jasparro and Jonathan Taylor, ‘Climate Change and Regional Vulnerability to Transnational Security
Threats in Southeast Asia’ (2008) 13(2) Geopolitics 241.
51 Kathyrn Farr, ‘Armed Conflict, War Rape and the Commercial Trade in Women and Children’s Labour’ (2009)
(16) (1&2) Pakistan Journal of Women’s Studies,1-31.
52 U.S Department of State, Trafficking in Persons Report 2018.
53 Amnesty International, Nigeria: ‘our job is to shoot, slaughter and kill’: Boko Haram’s reign of terror in North
East Nigeria (2015) <www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr44/1360/2015/en/> accessed 1 December 2024.
54 Erin Denton, "International news coverage of human trafficking arrests and prosecutions: A content analysis."
in Francis Bernat (ed) Human Sex Trafficking. (Routledge 2011).
55 Ibid.
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effectively combat human trafficking, it is essential to increase efforts to investigate and
prosecute traffickers, as policymakers rely on empirical data to inform decision-making.56
Harnessing the power of data-driven research can effectively disrupt the entrenched dynamics
of human trafficking, thereby equipping the government with actionable insights and empirical
evidence to address the root causes of human trafficking.57 The development of informed,
evidence-based policies can be facilitated through a nuanced understanding of the evolving
dynamics of human trafficking, which includes relevant data for monitoring and tracking
progress.
It is convincing to conclude that data-driven research can inform the creation of tailored, region-
specific action plans that address the unique trafficking challenges confronting different areas
of Nigeria. For instance, the northern region's distinct struggles with trafficking for terrorism,
begging, and other forms of exploitation necessitate a bespoke approach. In contrast, the
southern region's experiences with fraudulent adoption, labour trafficking, and sex trafficking
demand a similarly tailored response. Furthermore, effective collaboration between NAPTIP
and the Nigeria Data Protection Commission is essential to ensure the responsible handling and
utilization of trafficking data.
4. A Public Health Approach
Legislative efforts over the past decade have produced a patchwork of criminal laws and some
assistance programs for victims. There is no evidence, however, that these efforts have reduced
the incidence of trafficking. Denton corroborates that many cases of human trafficking remain
unreported.58 This lack of meaningful progress prompts questions as to what the best framework
is for addressing human trafficking.59
The limitations of a law-enforcement-centred approach to combating human trafficking are
evident in its failure to address the needs of victims and its low success rate in securing
convictions. Despite the challenges inherent in prosecuting such cases, the low number of
convictions suggests that a law-enforcement-centred approach alone is insufficient to reduce
the incidence of human trafficking significantly.60
In contrast, a public health approach offers a promising alternative. By emphasizing prevention,
public health strategies can effectively reduce human trafficking and better meet the needs of
affected individuals and communities.61 Prevention is a cornerstone of public health
programming, whether addressing infectious diseases or violence. By prioritizing prevention, a
public health approach can provide a more effective and sustainable solution to combating
human trafficking.62
56 Eliana Lourenco, Mariana Goncalves and Marlene Matos, 'Trafficking in Human Beings: Portuguese
Magistrates' Perceptions' [2019] 5 Journal of Human Trafficking 238.
57 Kelle Barrick and Rebecca Pfeffer, 'Advances in Measurement: A Scoping Review of Prior Human Trafficking
Prevalence Studies and Recommendations for Future Research' (2021) 10(1) Journal of Human Trafficking 1-19.
58 Erin Denton, 'Anatomy of Offending: Human Trafficking in the United States, 2006-2011' [2016] 2 Journal of
Human Trafficking 32-33.
59 Jonathan Todres, 'Moving Upstream: The Merits of a Public Health Law Approach to Human Trafficking' [2011]
North Carolina Law Review 89(2) 447.
60 Cooper, Fallon Isabella, Van Bemmel, Pauline Van der Leun, et al. ‘Factors That Influence The Criminal Justice
Response To Human Trafficking: A Systematic Review Of North American And European Studies’ (2024) Crime
Law Soc Change 82, 623–658.
61 Greenbaum Jordan. "The Public Health Approach To Human Trafficking Prevention" (2019) Ga. St. UL Rev.
36, 1059.
62 Ibid.
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A public health perspective highlights the shortcomings of the current approach to human
trafficking. In public health, prevention is the primary goal, rather than merely responding to
outbreaks or holding perpetrators accountable after harm has occurred.63
Success in public health comes from proactive measures, such as immunization and
preparedness, which prevent illness and minimize harm. Similarly, with human trafficking,
prevention must be the goal. Arrests, convictions, and victim support services, while important,
indicate a failure to prevent victimization in the first place.
Todres advocated for the adoption of public health campaigns that are tailored to transform
societal attitudes that lead to risky behaviours.64 They target changes at individual, institutional,
and community levels to achieve healthier outcomes. Social marketing and advertising
campaigns have proven to be highly effective in addressing a range of public health issues.65 A
notable recent example is the global campaign to raise awareness about COVID-19, which
successfully disseminated key messages about the virus and preventative measures to a
worldwide audience.
To combat human trafficking, policymakers and advocates must identify concrete steps for
individuals and communities to contribute to prevention efforts. Public health campaigns can
inform choices in the human trafficking context, modifying behaviour toward healthier
actions.66
In attaining the aforementioned, there is need for a successful reformulation of awareness
messaging that will necessitate strategic partnerships, particularly with the public health sector
and NGOs as NAPTIP cannot bear this responsibility alone, and collaborative efforts will be
essential to achieving meaningful impact.
5. Conclusion
Human trafficking remains a pervasive challenge that requires innovative and multidisciplinary
approaches. While existing frameworks like the Palermo Protocol have advanced the global
fight against trafficking, significant gaps remain, particularly in addressing root causes such as
poverty, systemic corruption, and insufficient victim protection measures. This paper has
highlighted experimental methods, including poverty alleviation, leveraging counter-terrorism
strategies, data-driven interventions, and adopting a public health approach as critical avenues
for tackling human trafficking in Nigeria.
To effectively implement these strategies, robust collaboration between governmental agencies
like NAPTIP, international organizations, civil society, and the private sector is imperative.
Nigeria must invest in strengthening institutional capacities, ensuring accountability, and
fostering an enabling environment for sustainable anti-trafficking initiatives. Only by
integrating these experimental approaches with existing frameworks can the country hope to
achieve meaningful and lasting progress in combating human trafficking.
63 Ibid.
64 J Todres (n 59).
65 Ibid.
66 Ibid.
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Hetal Pandya and Hemal Pandya, 'Racial Discrimination and Human Trafficking in India:
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Jasparro C and Taylor J, ‘Climate Change and Regional Vulnerability to Transnational Security
Threats in Southeast Asia’ (2008) 13(2) Geopolitics.
Lourenco E, Goncalves M and Matos M, 'Trafficking in Human Beings: Portuguese
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Approach' (2002) 10(1) Gender & Development.
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Michele Anne Clark, 'Trafficking in Persons: An Issue of Human Security' (2003) 4(2) Journal
of Human Development.
Todres J, 'Moving Upstream: The Merits of a Public Health Law Approach to Human
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of Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP) in Combating Human Trafficking in Nigeria' [2024]
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BEYOND BORDERS: TACKLING HUMAN TRAFFICKING THROUGH STRUCTURAL
REFORM, REGIONAL COOPERATION, AND COMMUNITY RESILIENCE
Gerald Mandisodza
1.1 Introduction
Human trafficking, a form of modern slavery perpetuated by coercion and exploitation, remains
a critical issue in Southern Africa, particularly in Zimbabwe. Defined by the UN Palermo
Protocol (2000) through its act, means, and purpose, trafficking thrives in contexts of systemic
poverty, gender inequality, and weak governance. 1 Scholars regard human trafficking as a form
of modern slavery sustained through physical and psychological controls that perpetuate
exploitation. 2 In the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region, particularly
in Zimbabwe, human trafficking is a complex issue that demands multifaceted solutions. This
area acts as a source, transit, and destination for victims, facilitated by porous borders and
interconnected vulnerabilities that create a ripe environment for exploitation. 3 Zimbabwe is a
source country for trafficked individuals, especially women and children, who face labour and
sexual exploitation in South Africa, Kuwait, Oman, and other Middle Eastern nations. It also
serves as a transit point for victims from Somalia, Ethiopia, and Malawi en-route to South
Africa. 4 Internally, Zimbabwean children are subjected to forced labour in mining, agriculture,
and domestic work.
In Zimbabwe, human trafficking thrives because of systemic poverty, gender inequality,
and weak governance. 5 The crisis drew international attention in 2016 when 213 citizens were
repatriated from Kuwait, prompting the US State Department to spotlight Zimbabwe's severe
trafficking situation. 6 This issue has since spread to Oman, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE, further
entrenching poverty and inequality. 7 Poverty and high unemployment, particularly in rural
areas, compel individuals to seek opportunities abroad, rendering them susceptible to false
promises by traffickers. 8 Limited education and vocational training narrow the avenues for
escaping poverty, whereas corruption undermines anti-trafficking laws through resource misuse
and bribery at borders, facilitating the movement of victims. 9 Meanwhile, political instability
worsens this problem by causing dysfunction in underfunded and poorly trained law
enforcement, ultimately hindering human trafficking investigations and prosecutions. Despite
1 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), 'Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling' (2021)
www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-trafficking/index/html accessed 31 December 2024.
2 Maggy Lee, Trafficking and global crime control (SAGE 2011) 21.
3 Phyllis Kedibone Chembe, 'Human trafficking in southern Africa' (Doctoral dissertation, University of South
Africa 2016), 146.; Charles Mutasa, 'Human Trafficking in Southern Africa' in Alecia Dionne Hoffman and Sabella
Ogbobode Abidde (eds), Human Trafficking in Africa: New Paradigms, New Perspectives (Springer International
Publishing 2021), 275.
4 Blessing Zulu, 'Zimbabwe Grappling With Human Trafficking Scourge' (Voice of America, Zimbabwe, 1 April
2024)
https://www.voazimbabwe.com/a/human-rights-zimbabwe-grappling-with-human-trafficking-
scourge/7551055.html accessed 31 December 2024.; Charles Mutasa, 'Human Trafficking in Southern Africa, (n
3), 285.
5 Chembe (n 3), 284.
6 US Department of State, Trafficking in Persons Report (2016), 402.
7 Farayi Machamire, 'Zim-Kuwait "slaves" narrate horror tales' (Nehanda Radio, 14 June 2016)
https://nehandaradio.com/2016/06/14/zim-kuwait-slaves-narrate-horror-tales/ accessed 31 December 2024.
8 Obediah Dodo and Gloria Dodo, Human trafficking in Zimbabwe: an impediment to national development
(2012).
9 Blessing Zulu, 'Zimbabwe Grappling With Human Trafficking Scourge', (n 4). Lydia T Chibwe, 'An appraisal of
legislation and policy on human trafficking in Zimbabwe' (LLM Dissertation, University of Pretoria 2016).
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anti-trafficking frameworks like the Palermo Protocol, their effectiveness is compromised by
inconsistent monitoring and implementation. 10
Political corruption and weak governance in Zimbabwe not only facilitate human
trafficking and erode public trust in protective institutions but also necessitate an examination
of individual experiences and community responses to fully understand their impact and
identify potential grassroots solutions to this complex issue. This paper examines human
trafficking in South Africa and Zimbabwe by exploring factors such as social deprivation,
corruption, and gender inequality as drivers. It advocates for a comprehensive Africa-wide
strategy, including legal reform, community involvement, regional cooperation, and survivor-
centred approaches to address root causes. This essay contends that addressing human
trafficking requires a multifaceted and comprehensive approach that emphasises structural
reform and regional cooperation. The paper examines structural drivers, analyzes cooperation
efforts, and concludes with proposals for community resilience.
1.2 Survivor Experiences, Community Initiatives, and Youth Engagement
The severe impact of human trafficking is highlighted through survivors' stories, exposing
traffickers' tactics for exploiting vulnerable individuals. Ethically sharing these experiences
while maintaining the dignity and privacy of survivors is essential for public education. For
instance, MN, a 17-year-old Zimbabwean girl, was promised to work in South Africa but ended
up in forced labour under abusive conditions. At the same time, T, a 33-year-old mother, was
deceived into sex trafficking under the guise of economic opportunity. 11 These stories highlight
how traffickers exploit poverty, gender inequality, and legal vulnerabilities. In addition, H.G.
was promised lucrative hotel work in Kuwait, but instead suffered forced labour, abuse, and
confiscation of his passport, which demonstrates the deceptive tactics of traffickers.12
Community-based initiatives, particularly those led by religious organisations such as
the Methodist Church in Zimbabwe, have been essential for educating the public and mobilising
communities against human trafficking.13 Fostering resilient community responses, these
religious groups train leaders to identify trafficking signs and inform the public, while young
people significantly contribute through social media awareness campaigns and peer education,
acting as change agents and advocating for stronger anti-trafficking measures. 14 From these
experiences and community initiatives, it is clear that a comprehensive pan-African approach
is essential, employing a multipronged strategy that integrates legal reforms, enhanced regional
cooperation, and innovative solutions to empower local communities and leverage technology
to combat pervasive human rights violations.
2.1 Pan-African Strategies and Innovative Solutions to Combat Human Trafficking
2.1.1 Addressing Socioeconomic Drivers
Human trafficking in southern Africa is fundamentally driven by socioeconomic inequalities,
encompassing poverty, unemployment, and limited education, vulnerabilities significantly
10 Paul Oluwatosin Bello and Adewale A Olutola, 'The enforcement of anti-human trafficking law in South Africa:
a case of an aircraft without a pilot' (2018) 19 Police Practice and Research 270, 270.
11 Maybe Zengenene, 'Trafficking of women and girls in the District of Seke: Lessons from the Zimbabwe's Second
Republic' (2020) 33 Masyarakat, Kebudayaan dan Politik 256, 257-259.
12 Machamire, (n 7).
13 UnitingWorld News, 'Fighting human trafficking in Zimbabwe' https://unitingworld.org.au/fighting-human-
trafficking-in-zimbabwe/ accessed 29 December 2024.
14 Philip H Frankel, Human trafficking in South Africa (BestRed, an imprint of HSRC Press 2023), 36.; Nathaniel
Umukoro, 'Human Trafficking in Africa: Strategies for Combatting the Menace' in Alecia Dionne Hoffman and
Sabella Ogbobode Abidde (eds), Human Trafficking in Africa: New Paradigms, New Perspectives (Springer
International Publishing 2021), 81.
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exacerbated by political instability and systemic gender inequalities, thereby increasing
susceptibility to exploitation. 15 The exploitation of individuals, as tragically illustrated by
H.G.'s case, where economic hardship led to deceptive recruitment and abuse in Kuwait,
demonstrates the critical need for targeted interventions to address root vulnerabilities. 16
Consequently, developing strategies such as programs offering job training, financial literacy,
and support for women-owned businesses is essential to reducing susceptibility to trafficking
by providing alternative economic pathways. 17 Equally important are educational interventions
that build marketable skills and gender-responsive policies that challenge harmful societal
norms, both of which are crucial for mitigating vulnerability. 18 These vital socioeconomic and
gender-focused initiatives are ultimately underpinned by robust legal and policy frameworks
that serve as the foundation for comprehensive efforts to combat human trafficking.
2.1.2 Legal and Policy Frameworks: Strengthening Enforcement and Regional
Cooperation
Combating human trafficking in Africa hinges on legal and policy reform. The African Union's
ten-year plan emphasizes comprehensive legal reform, prosecution of offenders, and
intergovernmental cooperation.19 The Southern African Development Community (SADC) has
also initiated policies on skill development, capacity building, victim support, and public
awareness.20 However, critics argue that these measures prioritize immigration control and law
enforcement over addressing root socioeconomic issues.21 A unified subregional anti-
trafficking treaty, expanding on the Palermo Protocol, could provide a more holistic approach
to addressing the underlying causes, particularly by strengthening law enforcement and border
controls to dismantle smuggling networks that exploit weak enforcement and porous borders in
countries such as Zimbabwe, thereby facilitating the transportation of victims. 22 Enhancing
investigative capacity is essential for identifying, prosecuting, and detecting trafficking, as
evidenced by the potential impact of robust legal action, exemplified by the 30-year sentence
of Caroline Ziyanga. However, the rarity of these cases highlights the need for more consistent
and widespread enforcement.23
Regional cooperation enhances enforcement effectiveness through cross-border
collaboration and partnership. Key measures include information sharing, cross-border training,
and improved border control to dismantle human trafficking networks. Investment in
surveillance technologies and the establishment of joint task forces among SADC states
enhance surveillance and facilitate the cross-border prosecution of traffickers.24 Effectively
combating human trafficking requires a unified, multi-stakeholder approach that integrates
legal reforms, enhanced enforcement, and regional cooperation. This approach involves
collaborative initiatives, such as joint task forces and training, which facilitate coordinated
15 Zengenene (n 11).
16 Sally Nyakanyanga, “I Was Going to Starve”: A Story of Trafficking and Escape in Kuwait’ (Women & Girls
Hub,
News
Deeply,
7
November
2016)
https://deeply.thenewhumanitarian.org/womenandgirls/articles/2016/11/07/going-starve-story-trafficking-escape-
kuwait.html , accessed 30 December 2024.
17 Paul Oluwatosin Bello, 'Effective response to human trafficking in South Africa' (2019) 12 African Journal of
Criminology and Justice Studies 1.
18 Ibid.
19 Alecia Dionne Hoffman and Sabella Ogbobode Abidde (eds), Human trafficking in Africa: New paradigms, new
perspectives (Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021).
20 Mutasa (n 3) 276; Frankel (n 14) 145.
21 Nina Mollema, 'Combating human trafficking in South Africa: A comparative legal study' (Doctoral dissertation,
University of Pretoria 2013).; Mutasa (n 3) 279.
22 Bello (n 17); Zengenene (n 11).
23 Zulu ( n 4).
24 Hoffman & Abidde (n 19).
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action and information exchange. Additionally, support for local civil society ensures adaptable,
community-focused interventions. 25 Combining public awareness, community engagement,
and practical solutions, these strategies can create a sustainable framework to fight trafficking
in human beings in Zimbabwe and beyond.
Regional cooperation is crucial to combating human trafficking in Southern Africa, and
bilateral agreements among SADC member states, along with mechanisms such as the Southern
African Regional Police Chiefs Cooperation Organization (SARPCCO), facilitate information
sharing and coordinated law enforcement efforts. 26 Successful interventions such as
Zimbabwe’s collaboration with Kuwaiti authorities to rescue trafficked women demonstrate the
effectiveness of transnational partnerships. 27 However, to strengthen regional responses,
SADC states must harmonise data collection and reporting systems, enabling evidence-based
policy interventions and improving the monitoring of trafficking trends. 28 Beyond legal
frameworks, operational measures such as joint task forces, cross-border training initiatives,
and resource pooling are essential for dismantling trafficking networks and ensuring the
prosecution of offenders. Nevertheless, while institutional mechanisms provide the foundation
for anti-trafficking efforts, public awareness remains vital for translating policy into tangible
action.
2.1.3 Public Awareness, Community Engagement, and Practical Solutions
Public awareness and community involvement are crucial in the fight against trafficking in
human beings, especially in resource-intensive contexts, such as Zimbabwe. The current efforts
include coordinated initiatives between governments, notably through the National Action Plan
on Trafficking in Persons (NAPLAC) (2020-2028), and local and international non-
governmental organisations, including the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and
Love Justice International. 29 These programmes use a variety of communication channels,
including traditional and social media, in addition to community platforms (schools, religious
institutions and local assemblies) to inform the public about identification and prevention of
exploitation. 30. Using existing local structures offers a cost-effective strategy for grassroots
campaigning against human trafficking. 31
However, the impact of these initiatives remains limited across Zimbabwe and the
broader Southern African Development Community (SADC) region. Challenges include
inconsistent awareness depth, with public understanding often superficial and unable to keep
pace with the evolving tactics of traffickers, particularly in digital spaces. 32 Outreach to remote
and marginalized communities remains inadequate, hindered by logistical barriers and the need
25 Frankel (n 14).
26 Chembe (n 3).
27 The Sunday Mail, 'Zim women auctioned as sex slaves' (8 May 2016) https://www.sundaymail.co.zw/zim-
women-auctioned-as-sex-slaves accessed 20 December 2024.
28 Mutasa, 'Human Trafficking in Southern Africa' (n 3).
29 IOM Zimbabwe, 'Counter-Trafficking Programme' https://zimbabwe.iom.int/counter-trafficking-programme
accessed 21 April 2025.
30 Thabisani Dube, 'The Scourge of Human Trafficking in Zimbabwe: A Call to Action' (New Ziana, 21 March
2025) https://newziana.co.zw/the-scourge-of-human-trafficking-in-zimbabwe-a-call-to-action/ accessed 21 April
2025; Kudakwashe Dube, Hillary Mugota and Joshua Machinga, 'A Community's Fight Against Vulnerability to
Child Labour and Trafficking Through Awareness and Action' (ZELA Blogs, 25 February 2025) https://zela.org/a-
communitys-fight-against-vulnerability-to-child-labour-and-trafficking-through-awareness-and-action/ accessed
21 April 2025.
31 Nicea Gumbo, 'Girl child trafficking from Zimbabwe to neighbouring countries, an analysis of the interventions
by government and selected non-governmental organisations' (MA Dissertation, University of Zimbabwe 2008).
32
US
Department
of
State,
2024
Trafficking
in
Persons
Report:
Zimbabwe
(2024)
https://www.state.gov/reports/2024-trafficking-in-persons-report/zimbabwe/ accessed 21 April 2025.
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for sustained, tailored messaging. 33 Additionally, Zimbabwe’s historical legal definition of
trafficking, previously centred on cross-border movement, has obscured the recognition of
internal trafficking and non-mobile exploitation, further complicating awareness efforts. 34
While reporting mechanisms exist, low public trust, accessibility gaps, and insufficient victim
protection services undermine their utility. 35 Law enforcement inconsistencies, as noted in
previous reports, exacerbate this issue, creating a perception of inadequate consequences for
offenders and support for victims. 36 Consequently, despite awareness campaigns, systemic
weaknesses perpetuate population vulnerability and impede meaningful reduction in
trafficking. 37 Media outreach, including radio broadcasts on stations such as Radio Zimbabwe,
Star FM, and National FM, extends efforts to rural areas. 38 However, shifting media
consumption patterns and a declining reliance on traditional radio are diminishing their reach.
Although stations now supplement broadcasts with social media platforms like Facebook,
YouTube, and WhatsApp, this digital shift excludes communities with limited Internet access,
highlighting a persistent urban-rural digital divide in anti-trafficking messaging. 39
Community-level initiatives play a key role in the fight against trafficking in human
beings in Zimbabwe, particularly in raising awareness among vulnerable groups.40
Collaborative programmes, led by local and international NGOs, often in partnership with
government agencies, utilise workshops, awareness-raising initiatives, and grassroots
campaigns to combat exploitation. 41 For example, the Zimbabwe Environmental Law
Association (ZELA) and Save the Children have conducted awareness campaigns in high-risk
areas such as Mudzi, using road shows and local media to inform communities about the
dangers of child labour and trafficking. 42 Similarly, the International Organisation for
Migration (IOM) has conducted capacity-building seminars for civil society groups, religious
organisations, and community leaders, utilising theatre and interpersonal communication to
disseminate relevant messages on human trafficking.43 These initiatives not only train local
stakeholders to identify indicators of trafficking but also set up community reporting
mechanisms. By involving trusted local structures, these programmes demonstrate the viability
of grassroots interventions while promoting the transformation of social norms, including the
involvement of men and boys in the dismantling of harmful practices. 44
Beyond raising awareness, Zimbabwe’s anti-trafficking efforts include survivor-centred
support programs, primarily facilitated by NGOs and international organisations. 45 These
33 Gumbo (n 30).
34 Zororai Nkomo, 'The Conundrum of Combating Child Trafficking in Zimbabwe' (AfricLaw blog 11 March 2025)
https://africlaw.com/2025/03/11/the-conundrum-of-combating-child-trafficking-in-zimbabwe/ accessed 19 April
2025.
35 IOM Regional Office for Southern Africa, Pretoria, 'Training enhances coordination between Government and
Civil Society against trafficking in persons' https://ropretoria.iom.int/news/training-enhances-coordination-
between-government-and-civil-society-against-trafficking-persons accessed 21 April 2025.
36 US Department of State (n 32).
37 Val Ingham-Thorpe, Parliamentary Briefing Paper on Human Trafficking (Veritas, March 2011)
https://www.veritaszim.net/sites/veritas_d/files/Parliamentary%20Briefing%20Paper%20on%20Human%20Traf
ficking_0.docx accessed 21 April 2025.
38 Claudia Macaveiu, Lorraine Wong and Lorenzo Guarcello, 'Factors, Counter-Trafficking Programs, and
Geographical Variations in Human Trafficking Literature (2010–2022)' (2024) Journal of Human Trafficking 1.
39 Tilda Moyo, a prominent radio and TV personality, has produced a variety of reality talk shows that are both
educational and informative, including those featuring individuals convicted of human trafficking in Zimbabwe,
https://www.facebook.com/share/v/15MRxsXsZh/ ; https://www.facebook.com/share/v/16QBdzRjsp/
40 Frankel (n 14).
41 US Department of State (n 32).
42 Dube and other (n 30).
43 IOM Zimbabwe(n 29).
44 IOM Regional Office for Southern Africa, Pretoria (n 35).
45 US Department of State (n 32).
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initiatives provide vocational training, income-generation assistance, and holistic reintegration
services to reduce survivors’ vulnerability to re-exploitation. 46 However, while the Trafficking
in Persons National Plan of Action (NAPLAC) outlines a framework for national reintegration,
implementation remains heavily reliant on external partners owing to resource constraints. 47
Additionally, although national strategies acknowledge the potential of technology, particularly
in data collection and case management, the widespread adoption of cost-effective tools (e.g.,
mobile-based reporting systems) remains inadequately documented in Zimbabwe’s current
anti-trafficking landscape. 48
2.1.4 Comprehensive Support for Survivors in Anti-Trafficking Efforts
Despite public awareness campaigns and interventions at the community level, trafficking in
humans continues, and many survivors require long-term, comprehensive support. Effective
anti-trafficking strategies need to adopt survivor-centred approaches that not only facilitate
rehabilitation and reintegration but also address the systemic vulnerabilities that allow
exploitation to occur. Survivors often suffer severe physical and psychological trauma, as
illustrated by the case of Zimbabwean women trafficked to Kuwait to work under extreme
conditions of abuse and forced labour. 49 Comprehensive support systems, including medical
assistance, psychological counseling, legal aid, and reintegration programs (such as safe
housing, vocational training, and financial assistance), are therefore essential to restore the
dignity and autonomy of survivors. The Survivor-centred approach goes beyond punitive
measures and addresses the rights and needs of victims. The central element of this approach is
the provision of trauma-informed care, which is central to the provision of specialised mental
health services for the treatment of complex post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and trauma-
related attachment. 50 This requires healthcare providers, first responders, and social workers to
be trained to effectively identify and address the psychological needs of victims.
In Zimbabwe, the Trafficking in Persons Act [Chapter 9:25] aligns with the Palermo
Protocol by mandating victim protection, compensation, and provincial rehabilitation centres.
However, implementation gaps persist due to inadequate state funding, leaving NGOs to
shoulder the majority of service delivery. 51 However, the practical effectiveness of these legal
provisions in ensuring the comprehensive recovery and reintegration of survivors is critically
hampered by the lack of government commitment and adequate resources for full
implementation, as well as the heavy reliance on NGOs for the provision of services. 52 In
addition to policy consultation, a survivor-centred framework requires the involvement of
survivors in the design and assessment of support services, in the creation of peer networks,
and in contributing to awareness-raising and education programmes based on their lived
experiences. This active participation is essential to ensure that interventions are adapted to the
lived experiences of the survivors and thus increase the effectiveness of the programme. 53
In addition to participation in programming, ensuring the long-term independence of
survivors and reducing the risk of re-trafficking requires comprehensive, individualised support
46 Bello (n 17).
47UNODC,
The
Zimbabwe
Trafficking
in
Persons
National
Plan
of
Action
(NAPLAC).https://www.unodc.org/documents/southernafrica/Publications/CriminalJusticeIntegrity/Traffickingin
Persons/Zimbabwe_TIP_National_Plan_of_Action.pdf accessed 21 April 2025, 12.
48 Macaveiu, Wong and Guarcello (n 38); UNODC, NAPLAC (n 47).
49 The Sunday Mail (n 27).
50 Ronald Chambers and others, 'Trauma-coerced Attachment and Complex PTSD: Informed Care for Survivors
of Human Trafficking' (2022) 10 Journal of Human Trafficking 41.
51 Zimbabwe, Trafficking in Persons Act [Chapter 9:25] 2014, https://www.laws.africa/zw/act/2014/4 accessed 23
April 2025, s 5; s 8; s 3(4); s 1, art 6.
52 UNODC, NAPLAC (n 47); US Department of State (n 32).
53 Macaveiu, Wong & Guarcello (n 38).
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addressing diverse needs, including economic empowerment through education, vocational
training, and employment. 54 Tailored services, including safe accommodation, legal and
financial assistance, complemented by accessible hotlines and referral mechanisms, together
with legal frameworks protecting survivors against criminalisation of acts committed under
duress and protecting their identity in the context of legal proceedings, are key components of
the coordinated safety net. 55 However, providing such tailor-made support is not yet sufficient
in practice, underlining the equally vital need to address the systemic root causes of
vulnerability to trafficking in human beings at the same time. Combating trafficking in human
beings effectively requires addressing systemic vulnerabilities deeply rooted in poverty, gender
inequality, and limited opportunities through coordinated multisectoral interventions. 56 This
requires adequate training of all stakeholders, especially law enforcement and social workers,
to develop a truly survivor-centred response that considers victims' rights and needs. Strong
monitoring and evaluation mechanisms are essential to ensure that interventions remain
relevant and practical, including participatory methods such as survivor feedback and the use
of advanced techniques, such as multisystem estimation, for accurate prevalence data and
evidence-based policy development. 57 The most promising approach to promoting sustainable
recovery and meaningful social change is to combine comprehensive support systems with
structural strategies to reduce vulnerability.
3.0 Conclusion
Human trafficking in the SADC region, particularly in Zimbabwe, represents a severe violation
of human rights sustained by systemic failures. Fighting this problem effectively requires a
multifaceted strategy that includes survivor-oriented interventions, regional cooperation,
regulatory reform, and targeted socioeconomic measures. Addressing root causes such as
poverty, inequality, and lack of opportunity requires initiatives such as education programmes
and financial assistance to reduce vulnerability and provide viable alternatives to exploitation.
Regional cooperation is crucial for dismantling the trafficking networks. Joint task forces and
harmonised legal frameworks across SADC countries would strengthen cross-border
investigations, information sharing, and overall coherence in the fight against trafficking in
human beings. Comprehensive survivor support systems that prioritise trauma-informed care
for psychological recovery and economic reintegration are equally important. These measures
are crucial to breaking the cycle of exploitation and empowering survivors to reclaim their lives.
The eradication of trafficking in humans ultimately requires an integrated approach that
combines structural reforms, community engagement, and multilateral cooperation. This
comprehensive framework recognises the interlinked factors that drive trafficking in human
beings and underlines the need for sustained commitment at the local, regional, and
international levels. Only through coordinated, long-term action can meaningful progress be
made towards a fairer and safer society.
54 Katharine Bryant and Todd Landman, 'Combatting Human Trafficking since Palermo: What Do We Know about
What Works?' (2020) 6 Journal of Human Trafficking 119.
55 Mollema (n 21); Bryant & Landman(n 54).
56 Bryant & Landman(n 54).
57 Chambers and others (n 50), Mutasa (n 3); Hoffman & Abidde (n 19).
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University of Zimbabwe 2008)
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Dube T, 'The Scourge of Human Trafficking in Zimbabwe: A Call to Action' (New Ziana, 21
March 2025) https://newziana.co.zw/the-scourge-of-human-trafficking-in-zimbabwe-a-call-to-
action/ accessed 21 April 2025.
Ingham-Thorpe V, Parliamentary Briefing Paper on Human Trafficking (Veritas, March 2011)
https://www.veritaszim.net/sites/veritas_d/files/Parliamentary%20Briefing%20Paper%20on%
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Civil
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Collection of Essays: Your Voice in Tackling Human Trafficking in Africa
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RURAL-URBAN TRAFFICKING OF GIRLS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA: TRENDS
AND EFFECTS IN THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA.
Nicodemus U. Msika
1. Introduction
Rural-urban trafficking of minor girls is a prevalent phenomenon among poor families in Sub-
Saharan African Communities. The problem can be witnessed when minor girls are moved from
rural to urban areas in search of a good livelihood for themselves and their poor families.
Consequently, in the search for a good livelihood for themselves and their poor families, young,
innocent, and defenceless girls are exposed to human trafficking. This is because adults with
evil will and a vicious thirst for dirty money usually lure young girls from rural areas, promising
them and their families a brighter future after these young girls move to urban areas for
employment. 1 Most sophisticated and innocent girls are guaranteed to work in good and decent
environments as housemaids, maids in nursing homes, shopkeepers, waitresses in restaurants,
and other decent working environments. 2 Unfortunately, these girls end up in dangerous gangs
of domestic human traffickers dealing with rural-urban human trafficking and expose young
girls to prostitution, unpaid domestic work, and all other sorts of exploitation. 3 Minor females
are preferred by human traffickers compared with adult females. This is because young girls
are often defenceless and can be easily deceived, and are unlikely to be capable of standing up
for their rights. 4
This problem has been prevalent despite there being laws that protect children from
employment and laws that prohibit the trafficking of persons; as such, there is a need to rethink
how to solve this recurring problem. Several factors are discussed as the causes behind the
prevalence of the phenomenon, as well as the effects that have been pointed out on rural-urban
trafficking of girls, taking into account the vulnerability of these girls. Lastly, this essay offers
solutions that should be adopted to combat the stated problem.
2. Factors Behind Rural-Urban Trafficking of Young Girls
Several factors tend to stand behind the prevalence of rural-urban trafficking of young girls in
Tanzania. These factors are categorized into legal, social, and economic categories. The
following are the main factors that attract the occurrence and the continuation of human
trafficking of girls from rural to urban areas.
2.1.Poverty in Families
Poor families in rural areas tend to struggle to improve their livelihoods. The struggles to
improve financial stability in low-income families often lead young girls to enter the workforce
to earn money to support their families. 5 Families with financial difficulties in rural areas tend
1 Janet Henshall Momsen, Gender, Migration and Domestic Service: Routledge International Studies of Women
and Place, (Oxon 1999) 57.
2 Angela Mathias, ‘Child Trafficking in Tanzania Exploring Experiences of Trafficked Girls in Dar es Salaam’
(Master's thesis, Universitas Bergensis 2011) 23.
3 Annemarie Kashaija Kiaga, ‘Blaming the Other Woman: Rural House-girls and Urban Employers on Identity,
Labour and Migration in Tanzania’ (DPhil thesis, University of Minnesota 2007) 31.
4 Karla Lorena Andrade-Rubio and others, ‘Vulnerability to Sex Trafficking: Adult Women’s Experiences While
They Were Adolescents’ (2024) 14 Societies 51.
5 Anti-Slavery International, Domestic Work and Slavery, (Anti-Slavery International 2014) 6.
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to convince their children to enter into job arrangements in urban areas.6 Human traffickers in
urban areas tend to take advantage of the financial difficulties of families in rural areas by
presenting tempting offers to families with girls that there are golden employment opportunities
in the urban areas. This situation is quite different for rich families in rural areas. 7 Since rich
parents or guardians tend to earn their daily bread without seeking the assistance of their
children.
2.2.Low Level of Employment Opportunities in Rural Areas
The prohibition on the employment of children in Tanzania is not absolute, as children may be
employed to carry out light work. Section 77 of the Law of the Child Act permits children aged
14 years and above to be engaged in light work. 8 The recruitment of children in light work is
also reflected in the Law of Child (Employment) Regulations. 9 The Employment and Labour
Relations Act; 10 And the Employment and Labour Relations (Code of Good Practice) Rules.11
However, there are relatively low levels of light work opportunities in rural areas in comparison
with urban areas. Additionally, the cash flow in rural areas is generally lower compared to urban
areas. 12 As a result, girls aged 14 and above who would have been employed in light work in
rural areas are forced by circumstances to travel to urban areas where they are exposed to the
hands of human traffickers. 13
2.3. The Focus of the Authorities on Cross-Border (Transnational) Human Trafficking
Different authorities, such as the police force and immigration officers, are responsible for
enforcing the Anti-Human Trafficking Act of Tanzania. 14 However, such authorities focus more
on transnational or cross-border human trafficking. 15 For instance, such authorities have been
focusing on ensuring that the girls who travel abroad to work as domestic workers are not
enslaved. 16 There are intensive security screenings to ensure that the girls who are offered jobs
abroad are placed in safer hands. Unfortunately, the focus of such authorities in combating the
transnational trafficking of persons is not reflected in the domestic trafficking of persons. 17
Also, the education concerning the trafficking of persons focuses on the transnational
6 National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) and United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), Child Poverty in Tanzania,
(NBS and UNICEF 2016) 17.
7 Francis Miko, ‘Trafficking in Women and Children: U.S and International Responses’ in Alexandre Troubnikoff
(ed), Trafficking in Women and Children: Current Issues and Development (Nova Science Publisher Inc. 2003) 52.
8 Law of the Child Act 2019, s. 77.
9 Law of Child (Employment) Regulations 2012.
10 Employment and Labour Relations Act 2019.
11 Employment and Labour Relations (Code of Good Practice) Rules 2007.
12 Anti-Slavery Organisation, ‘Tanzania Child Domestic Workers’ (Anti-Slavery Org. 2 May 2019)
<https://www.antislavery.org/what-we-do/tanzania/> accessed 20 April 2025.
13 Magolanga Shagembe and Thomas Ndaluka, ‘Are Child Domestic Workers Key Ingredients in Employers’
Households? Employers’ Perceptions Towards Child Domestic Workers in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (2022) 29
Tanzania Journal of Population Studies and Development 107, 123.
14 The Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act 2008.
15 United States Department of State, ‘Trafficking in Persons Report 2009’ (Ref
World, 16 June 2009)
<https://www.refworld.org/reference/annualreport/usdos/2009/en/67882> accessed 04 January 2025.
16 IOM, ‘Child Victims of Trafficking in Tanzania’ (IOM Tanzania) <https://tanzania.iom.int/child-victims-
trafficking-tanzania> accessed 12 December 2024.
17 United States Department of State, ‘2023 Trafficking in Persons Report: Tanzania’ (US-Department of State, 20
July 2023) <https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-trafficking-in-persons-report/tanzania/> accessed 12 December
2024.
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trafficking of persons. Consequently, there are in-depth statistics on trends in transnational
human trafficking, unlike domestic human trafficking. 18
2.4.The Prevalence of Child Labour in Domestic Settings
In the Tanzanian setting, a large proportion of domestic workers, also known as housemaids,
are children aged between 12 and 17. 19 This is despite the fact that the Law of the Child Act of
Tanzania stipulates that a child is a person below the age of 18 years. 20 Additionally, the
Employment and Labour Relations Act prohibits the employment of children. 21 Still, there is a
prevalence of child labour, which tends to open a room for human traffickers to have access to
young girls through promises of better jobs in urban areas. 22
2.5.Poor Management of Recruitment Agencies
There are formal and informal recruitment agencies in urban areas. Some recruitment agencies
tend to focus on accumulating wealth while disregarding the welfare of the girls they recruit.
Some girls from rural areas are recruited as domestic labourers after passing through the hands
of recruitment agencies. 23 After being placed in the hands of the employees, some recruitment
agencies tend to lose focus on the welfare of the girls that they bring from rural areas. 24 Hence,
exploitative and inhumane employers tend to enslave the girls who primarily pass into the hands
of recruitment agencies.
3. The Effects of Rural-Urban Trafficking on Girls
Several effects tend to affect the trafficked girls from rural to urban areas under the umbrella of
domestic workers. Such effects range from physical to psychological. The following are the
significant effects of rural-urban trafficking of girls.
3.1.Human Rights Violation
The trafficked girls are often exploited and humiliated. These girls are denied their rightful
payments after working in domestic settings, and others are subjected to sexual exploitation. 25
The girls are subjected to severe beatings, restrictions on movements, and other inhumane and
degrading treatments. 26 Some of the girls who are subjected to sexual exploitation end up as
victims of sexually transmitted diseases (STDS), and other girls are impregnated. Afterwards,
18 Helena Kennedy Centre for International Justice, ‘Gender-Based Violence and Human Trafficking in Tanzania;
Submission for the UN Universal Periodic Review 39th Session of the UPR Working Group (Oct-Nov 2021)’(HKC)
<https://www.shu.ac.uk/helena-kennedy-centre-international-justice> accessed 21 April 2025.
19 International Labour Organisation, Child Labour and the Youth Decent Work Deficit in Tanzania (International
Labour Organisation 2018) 23.
20 National Bureau of Statistics, Office of the Chief Government Zanzibar, and United Nations Children’s Fund,
Child Work and Child Labour in the United Republic of Tanzania Evidence from the Integrated Labour Force
Survey (2014–2021) (United Nations Children's Fund, 2024) 19.
21 Employment and Labour Relations Act 2019.
22 Rebecca Grant, ‘No School, No Salary: the Children Tricked into Domestic Servitude in Zanzibar’ The Guardian
(Dar es Salaam, 9 November 2017) 7.
23 Tausi Mbalamwezi, ‘International Obligation in Preventing Trafficking in Persons: An Examination of the Anti-
Trafficking Law in Tanzania’ (LL.M Dissertation, Mzumbe University 2016) 44.
24 Camilla Fabbri and others, ‘Labour Recruitment and Human Trafficking: Analysis of a Global Trafficking
Survivor Database’ (2023) 57 International Migration Review, 629, 637.
25 Prime Minister’s Office Labour, Youth, Employment and Persons with Disability, National Strategy on the
Elimination of Child Labour 2018-2022 (Prime Minister’s Office Labour, Youth, Employment and Persons with
Disability 2017) 26.
26 End Child Prostitution and Trafficking (ECPAT), ‘Executive Summary-Tanzania’ (ECPAT, 2021)
<https://ecpat.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/EXSUM_A4A_AF_Tanzania.pdf> accessed 17 December 2024.
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these girls are chased away or forced to undergo an abortion. 27 Furthermore, the minor girls
affected by rural-urban human trafficking tend to suffer from low self-esteem as well as
isolation from various spheres of life. For instance, in domestic settings, such girls are denied
food, medical treatment, decent dressing, and proper work conditions. According to a report by
CNN, the majority of children who work in domestic settings in Tanzania are exposed to the
modern form of slavery and servitude. 28
3.2.Psychological Trauma
The trafficked girls are subjected to physical, verbal, and mental harassment, among other
inhumane treatments. Such harassment and inhumane treatment tend to cause psychological
trauma to the trafficked girls. 29 The Commissioner General of the Immigration Service
Department of Tanzania was quoted in a newspaper interview stating that girls aged between
12 and 17 years are vulnerable to human trafficking in domestic settings. The Commissioner
General said further that after being rescued, these girls remain with severe psychological
scars.30 Without psychological treatments and other assistance, psychological trauma tends to
remain forever in the lives of post-trafficked girls.31 Psychological trauma tends to disturb the
mental wellness of trafficked girls and leave them with permanent scars because of the
inhumane treatment they experienced when trafficked.
3.3.An Increase in the Rate of School Dropouts
Rural-urban trafficking of girls is prevalent among girls aged 12 and 17 years. 32 The majority
of girls of this age are those who are supposed to be in either primary or secondary school, as
applicable. 33 The prevalence of human trafficking of girls from rural to urban areas tends to
attract an increase in the number of girls who tend to quit their studies. This is because both the
girls and their parents are deceived into thinking that the girls should leave school. 34 With the
promise of receiving golden opportunities in urban areas as domestic workers, aside from other
job opportunities that these girls are promised to find in urban areas. 35 Therefore, rural-urban
trafficking of girls is among the factors that make the number of girls who attend school lower
in rural areas in comparison with the number of girls who attend school in urban areas. 36
27 United Republic of Tanzania, ‘Statistics and Effects of Child Labour in Tanzania’ (United Republic of Tanzania,
25 May 2021) <https://unitedrepublicoftanzania.com/economy-of-tanzania/statistics-and-effects-of-child-labor-
in-tanzania/> accessed 21 April 2025.
28 Lisa Cohen, ‘Finding a Brighter Future for Tanzania’s Child Domestic Workers’ (CNN, 18 March 2023)
<https://edition.cnn.com/2023/03/18/africa/mercy-esther-tanzania-domestic-servitude-cfp-spc-intl/index.html>
accessed 21 April 2025.
29 Joseph Mwamunyange, ‘New Form of Child Trafficking in Tanzania’ The EastAfrican (Nairobi, 23 October
2011) 3.
30 Editorial, ‘Battling Human Trafficking: From Shadows to Spotlight’ The Guardian (Dar es Salaam, 4 May 2024)
7.
31 James Matheka, Elizabeth Shayo, and Annabel Erulkar, Domestic Work, Sexual Abuse, and Exploitation in
Tanzania (Population Council 2020).
32 Hine Haley, ‘What’s Hindering Girls’ Education in Tanzania?’ (The Borgen Project, 13 May 2018)
<https://borgenproject.org/girls-education-in-tanzania-2/> accessed 20 April 2025.
33 Simon Ngalomba, ‘Poverty and Child Trafficking in Tanzania: Implications on Access to Education’ (2020)
SSRN <https://ssrn.com/abstract=3569714> accessed 19 December 2024.
34 United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), Child Domestic Workers and Access to Education in Makete,
Tanzania (UNICEF 2006) 29.
35 Cecilia Apolinary, ‘Domestic Child Trafficking in Tanzania; Analysis of the Existing Legal Framework: A Case
of Mbeya Region’ (COSTECH Integrated Repository, 2017) <http://repository.costech.or.tz/handle/11192/3815>
accessed 16 December 2024.
36 Rehema J Magesa, ‘The Impact of Human Trafficking on Young Female’ Live’ (DPhil thesis, The Open
University of Tanzania 2021).
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4. The Way Forward
The identification of the causes and effects of rural-urban trafficking of girls calls for the
adoption of durable solutions. There is a need to adopt tentative solutions to solve the problem
of rural-urban trafficking of girls. The following are the proposed solutions.
4.1.Criminalising Child Labour in Domestic Settings
As previously mentioned, the majority of domestic workers in urban settings are children. This
makes it easy for girls to be subjected to human trafficking under the umbrella of domestic
workers. There is a great need for the Tanzanian Government to criminalise the employment of
children in domestic settings. 37 Criminalising the employment of children in domestic settings
may pull away human traffickers from using children’s employment in domestic settings as a
way of lulling girls whom they intend to exploit after being trafficked. Once the employment
of minor girls is criminalised, and when there is vigorous enforcement of the laws. It will be
difficult for human traffickers to lure minor girls by promising them employment opportunities.
This is because most girls are trapped in human trafficking through fake promises of
employment opportunities.
4.2.Social-Economic Support to Poor Families in Rural Areas
Poverty is one of the factors behind the trafficking of girls from rural areas. Since parents and
guardians from low-income families in rural areas often allow their daughters to move to urban
areas to engage in various forms of work, such as domestic work, to help support their families
economically. It is therefore essential for low-income families in rural areas to receive social
and economic support. 38 The social and economic support may prevent parents and guardians
in rural areas from allowing the girls to move to urban areas in the quest for earning a daily
bread for their families. The Government and development stakeholders should design relief
platforms to uplift the livelihoods of poor families in rural areas. The reliefs should be centred
on agriculture, pastoralism, fishing, forestry, pottery and other activities engaged in by the
majority of people in rural areas.
4.3.Awareness Raising
There is a need for public sensitisation on matters concerning human trafficking. The public
should be educated on the causes, the extent, the effects, and the solutions behind human
trafficking.39 This is because few people are aware of the existence of human trafficking. At the
same time, the few people who are aware of human trafficking tend to focus on cross-border or
international human trafficking while ignoring domestic human trafficking, such as the rural-
urban trafficking of girls. Therefore, awareness raising concerning human trafficking should be
given to all people in rural and urban areas. This should also be featured in both formal and
informal education.
4.4.Moral and Material Support to the Victims
The majority of trafficked girls tend to live with psychological trauma because of the hardships
endured during their enslavement. Unfortunately, when the majority are rescued, they do not
receive the required moral and material support. The rescued or self-freed girls need to undergo
37 Edson Katabwa, ‘Child Labour Reduction and Prevention at Ukwamani and Mzimuni-Kawe Dar es Salaam’
(Master’s Dissertation, Open University of Tanzania 2013).
38 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking,
An Introduction to Human Trafficking: Vulnerability, Impact and Action (United Nations 2008) 22
39 Rosemary Mirondo, ‘Tanzania’s Anti-Human Trafficking Efforts Pay Off’ The Citizen (Dar es Salaam, 11
November 2024) 9
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psychological treatments and be placed under comprehensive rehabilitation. 40 It is also
essential for the victims of human trafficking to be assisted financially to become self-
independent.41 Furthermore, the Government of Tanzania and other stakeholders should ensure
that the rescued girls are enrolled in adult education and vocational training programs.
4.5.Strong Supervision of Domestic Workers Recruitment Agencies
There is a great need for the government and its responsible agencies to supervise and monitor
recruitment agencies. 42 Recruitment agencies should be monitored on how they ensure the
welfare of girls brought from rural to urban areas. 43 When recruitment agencies do not oversee
the welfare of the girls they bring into urban areas, there will be no end to the trafficking of the
girls. 44 Once it is revealed that a recruitment agency abandons the girls in the hands of their
employers. The government should intervene by reprimanding or prohibiting the operations of
such a recruitment agency.
5. Conclusion
Generally, the trafficking of persons, be it of a transnational or domestic nature, is dangerous to
the interests and welfare of a trafficked person, the family of the trafficked person, and the
betterment of the entire community. Thus, instead of focusing extensively on the transnational
trafficking of persons only. The different authorities need to focus also on combating the
domestic trafficking of persons to combat the rural-urban trafficking of girls. Most importantly,
there is a need for socio-economic initiatives to be implemented in order to alleviate poverty
among poor families in rural areas. This is because poverty is a major factor that traps minor
girls into human trafficking while searching for a better life through employment opportunities
in urban areas.
40 Nattasuda Taephant, IOM Training Manual on Psychosocial Assistance for Trafficked Persons (International
Organisation for Migration 2010).
41 GRETA Group of Experts on Action Against Trafficking in Human Beings, Assistance to Victims of Human
Trafficking (Council of Europe 2019).
42 Reda Sirgedience, The Relationship Between Recruitment Practices and Trafficking in Human Beings for Forced
Labour, Exploitation for Forced Labour, and Other Exploitative Labour Situations of Lithuanians Abroad (CBSS
2020) 56.
43 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, The Role of Recruitment Fees and Abusive and Fraudulent
Recruitment Practices of Recruitment Agencies in Trafficking in Persons (United Nations 2015) 61.
44 International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC), How to Combat Forced Labour and Trafficking: Best
Practices Manual for Trade Unions (ITUC 2009) 34.
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Bibliography
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Anti-Slavery International, Domestic Work and Slavery (Anti-Slavery International 2014).
International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC), How to Combat Forced Labour and
Trafficking: Best Practices Manual for Trade Unions (ITUC 2009).
Matheka J, Shayo E, and Erulkar A, Domestic Work, Sexual Abuse, and Exploitation in
Tanzania (Population Council 2020).
Momsen JH, Gender, Migration, and Domestic Service: Routledge International Studies of
Women and Place, (Oxon 1999).
National Bureau of Statistics, Office of the Chief Government Zanzibar, and National Bureau
of Statistics (NBS) and United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), Child Poverty in Tanzania
(NBS and UNICEF 2016).
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Beings (OSCE), Human Trafficking for Labour Exploitation/Forced and Bonded Labour:
Identification, Prevention and Prosecution (OSCE 2008).
Prime Minister’s Office, Labour, Youth, Employment and Persons with Disability, National
Strategy on the Elimination of Child Labour 2018-2022 (Prime Minister’s Office, Labour,
Youth, Employment and Persons with Disability 2017) 26.
Sirgedience R, The Relationship Between Recruitment Practices and Trafficking in Human
Beings for Forced Labour, Exploitation for Forced Labour, and Other Exploitative Labour
Situations of Lithuanians Abroad (CBSS 2020).
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), Child Domestic Workers and Access to Education
in Makete, Tanzania (UNICEF 2006).
United Nations Children’s Fund, Child Work and Child Labour in the United Republic of
Tanzania Evidence from the Integrated Labour Force Survey (2014–2021) (United Nations
Children's Fund, 2024).
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and United Nations Global Initiative to Fight
Human Trafficking, An Introduction to Human Trafficking: Vulnerability, Impact and Action
(United Nations 2008).
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Fraudulent Recruitment Practices of Recruitment Agencies in Trafficking in Persons (United
Nations 2015).
Edited Books
Miko F, ‘Trafficking in Women and Children: U.S and International Responses’ in A
Troubnikoff (ed), Trafficking in Women and Children: Current Issues and Development (Nova
Science Publisher Inc. 2003).
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Journal Article
Fabbri C and others, ‘Labour Recruitment and Human Trafficking: Analysis of a Global
Trafficking Survivor Database’ (2023) 57 International Migration Review, 629, 637.
Kerega PA, ‘Exploration of the Means of Getting to the City and Getting Employed among
Young Female Domestic Workers in Dar es Salaam’ (2019) 7 Tanzania Open Journal of Social
Sciences.
Shagembe M and Ndaluka T, ‘Are Child Domestic Workers Key Ingredients in Employers’
Households? Employers’ Perceptions Towards Child Domestic Workers in Dar es Salaam,
Tanzania (2022) 29 Tanzania Journal of Population Studies and Development 107, 123.
Online Journals
Ngalomba S, ‘Poverty and Child Trafficking in Tanzania: Implications on Access to
Education’ (2020) SSRN <https://ssrn.com/abstract=3569714> accessed 19 December 2024.
Websites and Blogs
Anti-Slavery Organisation, ‘Tanzania Child Domestic Workers’ (Anti-Slavery Org. 2 May
2019) <https://www.antislavery.org/what-we-do/tanzania/> accessed 20 April 2025.
Apolinary C, ‘Domestic Child Trafficking in Tanzania; Analysis of the Existing Legal
Framework: A Case of Mbeya Region’ (COSTECH Integrated Repository, 2017)
<http://repository.costech.or.tz/handle/11192/3815> accessed 16 December 2024.
End Child Prostitution and Trafficking (ECPAT), ‘Executive Summary-Tanzania’ (ECPAT,
2021) <https://ecpat.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/EXSUM_A4A_AF_Tanzania.pdf> 17
December 2024.
Haley H, ‘What’s Hindering Girls’ Education in Tanzania?’ (The Borgen Project, 13 May 2018)
<https://borgenproject.org/girls-education-in-tanzania-2/> accessed 20 April 2025.
Helena Kennedy Centre for International Justice, ‘Gender-Based Violence and Human
Trafficking in Tanzania; Submission for the UN Universal Periodic Review 39th Session of the
UPR Working Group (Oct-Nov 2021)’(HKC) <https://www.shu.ac.uk/helena-kennedy-centre-
international-justice> accessed 21 April 2025.
International Labour Organisation, Child Labour and the Youth Decent Work Deficit in
Tanzania (International Labour Organisation 2018) 23.
IOM,
‘Child
Victims
of
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in
Tanzania’
(IOM
Tanzania,
2024)
<https://tanzania.iom.int/child-victims-trafficking-tanzania> accessed 12 December 2024.
United Republic of Tanzania, ‘Statistics and Effects of Child Labour in Tanzania’ (United
Republic of Tanzania, 25 May 2021) <https://unitedrepublicoftanzania.com/economy-of-
tanzania/statistics-and-effects-of-child-labor-in-tanzania/> accessed 21 April 2025.
United States Department of State, ‘2023 Trafficking in Persons Report: Tanzania’ (US-
Department of State, 20 July 2023) <https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-trafficking-in-
persons-report/tanzania/> accessed 12 December 2024.
Collection of Essays: Your Voice in Tackling Human Trafficking in Africa
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United States Department of State, ‘Trafficking in Persons Report 2009’ (ref world, 16 June
2009) <https://www.refworld.org/reference/annualreport/usdos/2009/en/67882> accessed 04
January 2025.
Theses/Dissertations
Katabwa E, ‘Child Labour Reduction and Prevention at Ukwamani and Mzimuni-Kawe Dar es
Salaam’ (Master’s Dissertation, Open University of Tanzania 2013).
Kiaga AK, ‘Blaming the Other Woman: Rural House-girls and Urban Employers on Identity,
Labour, and Migration in Tanzania’ (DPhil thesis, University of Minnesota 2007).
Magesa RJ, ‘The Impact of Human Trafficking on Young Female’ Live’ (DPhil thesis, The Open
University of Tanzania 2021).
Mathias A, ‘Child Trafficking in Tanzania Exploring Experiences of Trafficked Girls in Dar es
Salaam’ (Master’s thesis, Universitas Bergensis 2011).
Mbalamwezi T, ‘International Obligation in Preventing Trafficking in Persons: An Examination
of the Anti-Trafficking Law in Tanzania’ (Master’s Dissertation, Mzumbe University 2016)
Newspaper Articles
Editorial, ‘Battling Human Trafficking: From Shadows to Spotlight’ The Guardian (Dar es
Salaam, 4 May 2024) 7.
Grant R, ‘No School, No Salary: the Children Tricked into Domestic Servitude in Zanzibar’
The Guardian (Dar es Salaam, 9 November 2017) 7.
Mirondo R, ‘Tanzania’s Anti-Human Trafficking Efforts Pay Off’ The Citizen (Dar es Salaam,
11 November 2024) 9
Mwamunyange J, ‘New Form of Child Trafficking in Tanzania’ The EastAfrican (Nairobi, 23
October 2011) 3
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WEAVING THE SHIELD TO TACKLE THE ACHE OF HUMAN TRAFFICKING IN
AFRICA
Grace. N. Sitati
1. Introduction
Human trafficking, known as Trafficking in Persons, is a form of neo-slavery.1 It is a crime against
the State and individuals as it undermines the rule of law and violates human rights.2 The crime
involves the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring, or receipt of persons using
threats, coercion, deception, abuse of power, or a position of vulnerability, or illegal means,
with the intent to exploit.3 Therefore, the elements of human trafficking are: the act (recruiting,
transporting, transferring, harbouring, and receiving individuals); the means (deception,
coercion, threats, force, fraud, abduction, abuse of power); and the purpose centred on
exploitation.4
The Palermo protocol defines exploitation to include prostitution of others, forced labour or
services, sexual exploitation, slavery and similar practices, servitude, organ removal, and sex
tourism, among other forms.5 Further, the Protocol stipulates that consent cannot be used as a
justification when the means mentioned above are used; it is considered irrelevant.6 Additionally,
if the victim is a child below 18 years, the means used are immaterial.7
Consequently, most African countries have ratified the Palermo Protocol and incorporated its
provisions into their legal frameworks.8 Despite this, they are yet to comply with the set standards
for the elimination of human trafficking.9 As a result, they are globally classified according
to their adherence to the international minimum standards.10 Tier 1 countries, like Seychelles,
fully comply with the standards set in the fight against human trafficking.11 Conversely, Tier 2
countries, such as South Africa and Kenya, are making considerable progress but have not met the
set standards.12 Another category is Tier 2 Watch List countries, such as the Congo and Zimbabwe,
which risk falling behind in their anti-trafficking efforts.13 Tier 3 countries, such as Sudan and
South Sudan, do not meet the minimum standards for anti-trafficking laws. In contrast, countries
like Somalia and Libya are referred to as exceptional cases because they face distinct challenges of
1 Caf Dowlah, Cross-Border Labor Mobility, Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (2nd edn, Palgrave
Macmillan 2020) 244.
2 Ryszard Piotrowicz, Conny Rijken, and Baerbel Uhl, Routledge Handbook of Human Trafficking (1st edn,
Routledge 2017).
3 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing
the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (adopted 15 November 2000, entered into
force 25 December 2003) UNTS No. 39574 (Palermo Protocol) [2000], art 3a.
4 Ibid.
5 Palermo Protocol [2000] (n 3).
6 Ibid art 3b.
7 Palermo Protocol [2000] (n 3), arts 3a, 3c.
8 United Nations Treaty Collections, ‘Status of Treaties’
<https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XVIII-12-
a&chapter=18&clang=_en> accessed 18 December 2024.
9 US Department of State, 2024 Trafficking in Persons Report, (Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in
Persons, 2024).
10 Ibid.
11 US Department of State (n 9).
12 Ibid (n 11).
13 Ibid.
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vulnerable regions that complicate their ability to combat human trafficking.14
From the above classification, stakeholders advocating against human trafficking can readily
assess the compliance rate, hold states accountable, foster collaborations and make targeted
recommendations to countries based on their performance. Moreover, the rankings promote the
exchange of ideas, information and harmonisation of standards. This is because countries in the
lowest tier can benchmark themselves against those in the higher tier as they journey toward
combating human trafficking.
2. Background to Human Trafficking in Africa
In Africa, the prevalence of human trafficking is attributed to both push and pull factors.15 These
factors are caused by personal or systemic reasons that put people in precarious positions, making
them more susceptible to exploitation by traffickers. Systemic reasons are beyond an
individual’s control, while personal ones originate from unique situations that either push or
pull an individual. Push factors force people to leave their homes or seek better opportunities.
They include poverty, political instability, armed conflict, climate change, limited educational
opportunities, and corruption.16 On the other hand, pull factors are the perceived opportunities
or promises of better living conditions, employment, and safety in foreign countries.17
In most cases, traffickers target vulnerable individuals seeking better opportunities and end up
exploiting them through deception. They also lure victims with false promises of lucrative
opportunities. For instance, recently, over 100 Kenyans were repatriated from the Thailand-
Myanmar border following an incident in which they were duped into believing they would
secure better opportunities, only to fall victim to human trafficking.18 Similarly, a local agency
was under fire when desperate job seekers accused it of swindling them with false promises of
securing jobs in Mauritius.19 These incidents exhibit how traffickers prey on the hope of those
who take advantage of the push and pull factors.
3. Legal Regime for Tackling Human Trafficking
Having established the pull and push factors that contribute to human trafficking, it is trite to
examine the international, regional and sub-regional legal framework in place to combat
trafficking.
Internationally, in 1949, the Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and the
Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others was adopted to address trafficking for prostitution.20
The Convention criminalises all acts related to procuring, exploiting, or managing prostitution,
even with consent, and prohibits the operation of brothels or related financial involvement.21 It
obligates states to enact legislation, punish offenders, extradite criminals, and provide support
14 US Department of State (n 11).
15 International Association of Women Judges Kenya Chapter and International Association of Women Judges, Kenya Judicial
Bench Book on Labour Trafficking in Persons (GFEMS, 2022) 4-5.
16 Ibid.
17 Ibid (n 15).
18 Hillary Kimuyu, ‘More Kenyans rescued from human trafficking in Myanmar amid growing concerns’ (Nation
ePaper, 19 February 2025) <More Kenyans rescued from human trafficking in Myanmar amid growing concerns|
Nation> accessed 4 April 2025.
19 Franklin Wallah, ‘Angry Kenyans storm travel agency after being conned millions in Mauritius job scam’
(Citizen Digital, 26 March 2025) <https://citizen.digital/news/angry-kenyans-storm-travel-agency-after-being-
conned-millions-in-mauritius-job-scam-n359943> accessed 4 April 2025.
20 Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others,
(adopted 2 December 1949, entered into force 25 July 1951) 96 UNTS 271, the Preamble.
21 Ibid arts 1, 2.
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measures for victims.22 It also mandates States to cooperate through the sharing of information,
regulating migration and employment agencies, and conducting public awareness campaigns.23
The Convention is supplemented by the United Nations Convention against Transnational
Organised Crime, 2000, which, through the Palermo Protocol, 2000, provides a comprehensive
legal framework to combat organised crime and human trafficking of all forms.24 The objectives
of the Palermo Protocol are to prevent and combat trafficking, protect and assist victims while
respecting their human rights, and foster international cooperation.25 Additionally, the Protocol
calls for state cooperation in law enforcement, border control, and document security.26
At the regional level, the Maputo Protocol 2003 expressly prohibits trafficking of women and girls,
recognising it as a violation of their human rights and dignity.27 The Protocol urges States to
adopt measures to prevent trafficking, prosecute perpetrators, and enact laws that criminalise
all forms of exploitation.28 Likewise, the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child,
1990, prohibits the sale, trafficking, and abduction of children.29 In addition, Article 24 (4) of the
Charter requires the protection of children from all forms of exploitation, including trafficking
during adoption. To prevent human trafficking of any child, the Charter obligates state parties
to take all measures to prevent and eliminate such practices.30
Although the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights (ACHPR), 1981 (Banjul Charter)
does not expressly provide for human trafficking, it safeguards human rights. The Charter
implicitly addresses trafficking by affirming that every person has a right to life and personal
integrity,31 freedom of movement,32 prohibition of exploitation and degradation, including
slavery,33 and protection of women, children and the family.34
Sub-regionally, within the East African Community (EAC), the EAC Treaty requires Partner
States to establish shared security policies as a mechanism to combat cross-border crimes.35
Hence, in 2013, the Partner States signed the EAC Protocol on Peace and Security to nurture
collaboration in the fight against cross-border crimes like human trafficking.36 EAC Partner
States have ratified the Peace and Security Protocol.37 Furthermore, the EAC Counter-
Trafficking in Persons Bill, 2016, although awaiting assent, incorporates the "4 P's" obligations
of prevention, protection, prosecution, and partnerships to combat trafficking in persons.38
22 Ibid (n 20) art 6.
23 Ibid (n 20) art 13.
24 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children,
supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (adopted 15 November
2000, entered into force 25 December 2003) UNTS No. 39574 (Palermo Protocol), art 2.
25 Ibid.
26 Palermo Protocol, Part III.
27 Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (adopted 11
July 2003, entered into force 25 November 2005) CAB/LEG/66.6, (Maputo Protocol) art 4 (2) (g).
28 Ibid art 13(m).
29 African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (adopted 11 July 1990, entered into force 29 November
1999) CAB/LEG/24.9/49 (ACRWC) art 29.
30 Ibid arts 27, 29.
31 African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (adopted 27 June 1981, entered into force 21 October 1986)
CAB/LEG/67/3 rev.5, 21 ILM 58 1982 (Banjul Charter) art 4.
32 Ibid art 12.
33 Banjul Charter, art 5.
34 Banjul Charter, art 18 (3).
35 Treaty for the Establishment of the East African Community (adopted 30 November 1999, entered into force 7
July 2000) (EAC Treaty) art 124.
36 East African Community Protocol on Peace and Security (adopted 15 February 2013) arts 3(1), 12 (1) (d) (e).
37 East Africa Legislative Assembly, Report of the Committee on Regional Affairs and Conflict Resolution:
Progress Made by the EAC on its Common Foreign and Security Policies (2022) 13.
38 EAC Counter-Trafficking in Persons Bill, 2016, cl 3 and 10.
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In support of the framework, the Continent has also formulated policies that guide the fight
against human trafficking. For example, the Ouagadougou Action Plan to Combat Trafficking
in Human Beings, especially Women and Children, 2006, aims to develop cooperation among
states at the regional and domestic level, ensure due regard for best international practices and
establish mechanisms to prevent and combat trafficking of human beings between the European
Union and the African Union.39 This Plan supports the African Commission Initiative against
Trafficking (AU-COMMIT).40
Furthermore, the African Union (AU) Policy on the Prevention of Trafficking in Persons (TIP) in
Africa, 2021, seeks to prevent and combat human trafficking across the continent. The Policy
emphasises the need for a holistic approach, focusing on the 4 P’s: prevention, protection,
prosecution and partnerships, a concept borrowed from the Ouagadougou Action Plan.41 It calls
for the establishment of national and regional mechanisms to address the root causes of
trafficking.42 The policy provides the strategic framework for fighting trafficking in Africa,
such as strengthening law enforcement, prosecution, and intelligence sharing; facilitating
gender- responsive victim protection and compensation; and developing comprehensive legal
frameworks to combat human trafficking.43 It emphasises the importance of research, data
collection, and capacity building for relevant institutions. Similarly, the Policy advocates for
secure and coordinated border management, streamlining cross-border migration and labour
practices.44
Additionally, the African Union Horn of Africa Initiative on Human Trafficking and Smuggling of
Migrants (AU HoAI), founded in 2012, serves as a platform for countries in the Horn of Africa
region to exchange information and share experiences.
From the preceding paragraphs, the legal regime designed to combat human trafficking is
strong and elaborate. However, it is worrisome that the Continent remains a hotspot for human
trafficking, accounting for a third of cross-border trafficking, with women and girls being
principal targets.45 Hence, Africa faces the enormous task of combating human trafficking. The
key question remains: What are the challenges, and how can we tackle human trafficking more
effectively?
4. Challenges in Tackling Human Trafficking
Numerous challenges hinder the fight against human trafficking in Africa. They include:
limited public awareness and access to information,46 collusion between traffickers and local
communities,47 and endemic corruption where officials collaborate with culprits, frustrating the
efforts to fight human trafficking. 48 In addition, self-trafficking, where victims consent to
exploitation, also complicates enforcement efforts. Further challenges include gaps in the
implementation and ratification of legal frameworks such as the Niamey Convention, 2014,49
inadequate training for law enforcement due to limited resources, weak political will, poorly
39 Ouagadougou Action Plan to Combat Trafficking in Human Beings, Especially Women and Children (adopted
2006), the Preamble.
40 African Union, ‘AU Commission Initiative against Trafficking (AU-COMMIT) Campaign 2009-2012,’
<https://au.int/web/sites/default/files/newsevents/workingdocuments/28041-wd-au_commit_strat_-_english.pdf>
accessed 27 December 2024.
41 AU policy on the Prevention of Trafficking in Persons [TIP] in Africa, (September 2021), 7.
42 Ibid 20-29.
43 Ibid (n 41)
44 Ibid.
45 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2024, (United Nations, 2024)
ch II, 65-103.
46 Ibid 101.
47 National Crime Research Centre, The Problem of Human Trafficking in Kenya (revised edn, 2022) 107.
48 Ibid.
49 African Union Convention on Cross-Border Cooperation (adopted 27 June 2014) (Niamey Convention).
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regulated and monitored porous borders that facilitate trafficking,50 and insufficient
technological capacity that undermines anti-trafficking efforts.
5. Proposed Solutions
In light of the foregoing challenges, it is essential to explore ways to combat corruption.
Clearly, combating human trafficking in Africa requires concerted efforts are necessary. To
address the challenge of porous borders that fuel human trafficking and still realise the free
movement of people, states must strengthen border security through advanced technology,
infrastructure, and adequately trained personnel. Cross-border cooperation, including
intelligence-sharing, joint patrols, and regional task forces to disrupt trafficking networks.
Further, community engagement at border points can also assist in reporting suspicious activities
related to human trafficking.
Another viable solution is to create public awareness campaigns that educate communities on
the signs of trafficking and available resources. For instance, due to high levels of illiteracy
and ignorance, awareness of human trafficking remains low. Often, victims do not recognise
that they are being trafficked. Furthermore, potential allies, such as local leaders or NGOs,
usually lack the necessary knowledge to intervene. Therefore, grassroots campaigns, in
partnership with NGOs, faith-based organizations, and community leaders, can help broaden
awareness. More so, educational programs targeting vulnerable populations can help
individuals make informed decisions and reduce their susceptibility to traffickers.
In addition, hotlines for trafficking reporting, combined with sensitisation and school-based
education, offer a probable solution to combating human trafficking. Empowering everyone to
report activities through designated hotlines, such as Childline Kenya and Uganda’s Sautiline
116,51 helps address child trafficking. Likewise, billboards, social media, and workshops in a
language understood by the targeted audience can enhance awareness.
It is also vital to diversify information dissemination on issues of human trafficking to be readily
accessible to everyone. This can be through different local dialect radio stations, mobile phone
messages, digital and nationwide circulating newspapers, and visual aids, which are more
effective. By tailoring information in a way that is easy to understand and access, more people
become aware of the signs of trafficking and how to report it. Moreover, survivor inclusion can
play a crucial role in the dissemination of information. Such information empowers survivors
to share their experiences and contribute to solutions to prevent future cases. Their experiences
provide real-life insights into the methods traffickers use and the challenges victims face, making
it easier for law enforcement, advocacy groups, and policymakers to create more targeted and
effective interventions.52
Since most African countries are globally classified under Tier 2 watch list, Tier 3 or designated
as exceptional cases, it means that there is a pressing need to strengthen their legal regimes by
50 Omolara Akinyemi, 'Porous Borders and Increasing Human Trafficking in West Africa: Issues and Challenges'
[2019] International Journal of Social Science Research 42, 49.
51 Childline Kenya https://childlinekenya.co.ke/; Sauti 116 Helpline <https://sauti.mglsd.go.ug/sauti/> accessed
26 December 2024.
52 US Department of State, Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, 2024 Trafficking in Persons
Report: Kenya (2024).
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either enacting or domesticating international instruments.53 Similarly, while most African
countries have adopted anti-trafficking laws, effective enforcement remains a challenge. Hence,
they need to devise mechanisms to ensure proper enforcement. In addition, there is a need to
further focus on offenders because most anti-trafficking laws are victim-centred, making it hard to
prosecute offenders. A balanced approach should be adopted to strike a balance between the
two.
Another proposed solution worth considering is increasing funding for training, hiring, and
expanding leadership efforts in the fight against human trafficking. Capacity-building programs
for relevant officers can enhance the detection, investigation, and prosecution of trafficking cases.
For example, responsible offices for prosecution can develop Standard Operating Procedures
(SOPs), as Kenya has done under the Better Migration Management (BMM) initiative, for the
investigation and prosecution of human trafficking cases.54
Furthermore, emerging advanced technologies, such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), can be
beneficial in identifying trafficking patterns, monitoring online trafficking activities, and
facilitating cross-border intelligence sharing. Since perpetrators use digital platforms to recruit
victims and hide their identities, technology like AI can analyse large datasets to track
suspicious financial transactions or detect traffickers' communications on the dark web. With
perpetrators often steps ahead, enforcement agencies must adopt proactive strategies that
outpace them.
It cannot be gainsaid that ensuring safe, orderly, and regular migration is non-negotiable.
Governments must strengthen regulatory frameworks to oversee recruitment agencies and
ensure transparency. For instance, Kenya’s National Employment Authority (NEA) provides
a model for verifying agency registrations and protecting workers.55 Migrants should scrutinize
job offers and have them reviewed by legal or labour experts, with mandatory attestation by
labour departments to confirm their legitimacy and authenticity. Travel documents, including
work visas, should align with the purpose of migration, and sharing travel plans with trusted
contacts is critical for safety. Registering with embassies upon arrival should be mandatory to
ensure migrants have access to assistance when needed. Governments should raise awareness
of potential red flags, such as tourist visas issued for work purposes or jobs that sound too good
to be true.
There is a need for information sharing among key stakeholders in the countries of origin, transit
and destination. Realising the foregoing is possible through government-to-government (G-G)
deals, bilateral agreements, partnerships and cross-border cooperation. For instance, the Middle
East, i.e., Qatar, Dubai and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, are destinations for most migrant
workers from Kenya, thus increasing human trafficking.56 Consequently, in 2014 and 2024, the
United Arab Emirates (UAE) signed a Memorandum of Understanding to safeguard the rights
of Kenyan workers in the UAE.57 Through the agreement, both countries collaborated on
53 Tom Obokata, 'Human Trafficking in Africa: Opportunities and Challenges for the African Court of Justice and
Human Rights' in CC Jalloh, KM Clarke, and VO Nmehielle (eds), The African Court of Justice and Human and Peoples’
Rights in Context: Development and Challenges (Cambridge University Press 2019) 529–552.
54 Ibid.
55 National Employment Authority, ‘National Employment Authority Integrated Management System (NEAIMS),’
<https://neaims.go.ke/> accessed 26 December 2024.
56 The Senate of Kenya, Standing Committee on Labour and Social Welfare, Report on Labour Migration, Senate
Study Visit to the Middle East and Policy Implications (October 2021) 5.
57 Ministry of Labour and Social Protection, ‘PS Urges Adoption of Good Practice in Labour Migration
Partnerships,’ (State Department for Labour and Skills Development, 22 November 2024) <https://labour.go.ke/ps-
urges-adoption-good-practice-labour-migration-
partnerships#:~:text=Labour%20and%20Skills%20Development%20Principal%20Secretary%20Shadrack%20
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improving the recruitment process and establishing safer migration pathways to reduce the risk
of trafficking through unauthorised employment channels. Kenya has also entered into bilateral
agreements with various destination countries, including the United Kingdom, to address
human trafficking and transnational crime.58 Furthermore, in December 2024, the Republic of
Kenya joined the Alliance 8.7, a global partnership of states that seeks to combat human
trafficking and achieve Goal 8.7 of the Sustainable Development Goals, which aims to eradicate
trafficking.59 The country has developed a road map for the next five years (2025-2030) to
tackle the human trafficking challenge.
From a juridical perspective, countries can draw inspiration from the judiciaries of Kenya and
Uganda, which collaborated to develop a bench book on labour trafficking. This bench book
equips judicial officers with the knowledge and tools necessary to handle labour trafficking
cases.60 Similar bench books addressing other forms of trafficking would further strengthen the
judiciary across the continent in handling all forms of human trafficking.
Public-private partnerships can also play a transformative role by pooling resources, sharing
expertise, and creating training programs to detect and report suspicious activities. For example,
in 2024, Kenya Airways and the International Organization for Migration (IOM) formed a
strategic partnership to combat human trafficking and enhance the protection of migrants.61
The collaboration seeks to implement measures that identify, prevent, and address trafficking
while promoting regular migration pathways.62
6. Conclusion
According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), the dynamics of
Human Trafficking in Africa are continually changing, demanding concerted efforts to tackle the
issue.59 Though African countries have made commendable strides, the war against human
trafficking requires a holistic approach that addresses its root causes, strengthens legal and
institutional capacities, and empowers communities. With concerted efforts, Africa can move
closer to achieving the goal of human trafficking-free continent.
Mwadime,workers%20against%20all%20forms%20of%20exploitation%20and%20abuse>
accessed
27
December 2024.
58 Bilateral agreement between the Government of the Republic of Kenya and the Government of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland for collaboration on healthcare workforce (2021) reg 6.
59 Ministry of Labour and Social Protection, Alliance 8.7 Kenya Country Road Map 2025–2030, (Republic of
Kenya, 2025) 12.
60 International Association of Women Judges, Anti-trafficking Judicial Bench Books in Uganda and Kenya
(19 January 2023) <https://www.iawj.org/content.aspx?page_id=5&club_id=882224&item_id=83956> accessed
23 December 2024.
61 Kenya Airways and International Organization for Migration (IOM) Kenya, ‘Kenya Airways and IOM Kenya Unite
to Combat Trafficking in Persons and Protection of Migrants’ (Press Release, 2 July 2024) <https://www.kenya-
airways.com/press-release-kenya-airways-iom-kenya-unite-combat-trafficking-person> accessed 27 December 2024.
62 Ibid.
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Bibliography
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Caf Dowlah, Cross-Border Labor Mobility, Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (2nd
edn, Palgrave Macmillan 2020)
Ryszard Piotrowicz, Conny Rijken, and Baerbel Uhl, Routledge Handbook of Human
Trafficking (1st edn, Routledge 2017)
International Association of Women Judges Kenya Chapter and International Association of
Women Judges, Kenya Judicial Bench Book on Labour Trafficking in Persons (GFEMS, 2022)
National Crime Research Centre, The Problem of Human Trafficking in Kenya (revised edn,
2022)
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Tom Obokata, 'Human Trafficking in Africa: Opportunities and Challenges for the African
Court of Justice and Human Rights' in CC Jalloh, KM Clarke, and VO Nmehielle (eds), The African
Court of Justice and Human and Peoples’ Rights in Context: Development and Challenges
(Cambridge University Press 2019)
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of Others, (adopted 2 December 1949, entered into force 25 July 1951), 96 UNTS 271
East African Community Protocol on Peace and Security (adopted 15 February 2013)
Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and
Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized
Crime (adopted 15 November 2000, entered into force 25 December 2003) UNTS No. 39574
(Palermo Protocol).
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Africa (adopted 11 July 2003, entered into force 25 November 2005) CAB/LEG/66.6, (Maputo
Protocol)
Treaty for the Establishment of the East African Community (adopted 30 November 1999,
entered into force 7 July 2000)
Bills
EAC Counter-Trafficking in Persons Bill, 2016
Policies
AU policy on the Prevention of Trafficking in Persons [TIP] in Africa (September 2021).
Ouagadougou Action Plan to Combat Trafficking in Human Beings, Especially Women and
Children (adopted 2006)
Collection of Essays: Your Voice in Tackling Human Trafficking in Africa
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Chair of African Legal Studies
38
Agreements
Bilateral agreement between the Government of the Republic of Kenya and the Government of
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland for collaboration on the healthcare
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(Republic of Kenya, 2025)
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(United
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Trafficking in Persons, 2024)
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Trafficking in
Persons Report: Kenya, (2024)
The Senate of Kenya, Standing Committee on Labour and Social Welfare, Report on Labour
Migration, Senate Study Visit to the Middle East and Policy Implications (October 2021)
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12a&chapter=18&clang=_en accessed 18 December 2024
African Union, ‘AU Commission Initiative against Trafficking (AU-COMMIT) Campaign
2009-2012,’
https://au.int/web/sites/default/files/newsevents/workingdocuments/28041-wd-
au_commit_strat_-_english.pdf accessed 27 December 2024.
Childline Kenya https://childlinekenya.co.ke/ accessed 26 December 2024.
Sauti 116 Helpline https://sauti.mglsd.go.ug/sauti/ accessed 26 December 2024.
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Ministry of Labour and Social Protection, ‘PS Urges Adoption of Good Practice in Labour
Migration Partnerships,’ (State Department for Labour and Skills Development, 22 November
Collection of Essays: Your Voice in Tackling Human Trafficking in Africa
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Chair of African Legal Studies
39
2024)https://www.labour.go.ke/ps-urges-adoption-good-practice-labour-migration-
partnerships accessed 27 December 2024
International Association of Women Judges, Anti-trafficking Judicial Bench Books in
Uganda
and
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(19
January
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<https://www.iawj.org/content.aspx?page_id=5&club_id=882224&item_id=83956>accessed
23 December 2024
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IOM Kenya Unite to Combat Trafficking in Persons and Protection of Migrants’ (Press Release,
2 July 2024) https://www.kenya- airways.com/press-release-kenya-airways-iom-kenya-unite-
combat-trafficking-person accessed 27 December 2024
Newspaper Articles
Hillary Kimuyu, ‘More Kenyans rescued from human trafficking in Myanmar amid growing
concerns,’(Nation ePaper, 19 February 2025)
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trafficking-in-myanmar-4934168 accessed 4 April 2025
Franklin Wallah, ‘Angry Kenyans storm travel agency after being conned millions in Mauritius
job scam,’ (Citizen Digital, 26 March 2025) < https://citizen.digital/news/angry-kenyans-storm
travel-agency-after-being-conned-millions-in-mauritius-job-scam-n359943> accessed 4 April
2025
Collection of Essays: Your Voice in Tackling Human Trafficking in Africa
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TRANSFERABLE IDEAS OR INNOVATION FOR TACKLING HUMAN TRAFFICKING
Ihuoma Okorie
1. Introduction
Trafficking is a complex phenomenon influenced by a range of social, economic,
cultural, and other contextual factors. Many of these drivers are specific to individual trafficking
patterns and the particular states in which they occur.1 It is a crime that often transcends borders,
with victims being smuggled, sometimes on foot, other times through dangerous routes,
spending days in transit while evading both rebels and security agents.2 This is often driven by
the pursuit of a better life, particularly for those seeking to escape poverty and severe socio-
economic conditions. It underscores the notion that the most common reason people migrate is
the search for greener pastures.
In recent times, trafficking has become a booming enterprise for those who prey on the
vulnerability and psychology of victims and their families, enticing them with promises of a
better future.3 In Nigeria, it is widely regarded as a form of modern-day slavery.4 Despite
growing awareness and coordinated conversations around this issue, trafficking persists, with
perpetrators daily devising novel strategies to attract and bring unsuspecting victims on board.
This ongoing crisis challenges the fundamental human rights of those affected. Therefore,
effectively addressing trafficking requires not only a deeper understanding of its root causes
but also the adoption of innovative, transferable ideas that can significantly reduce its
occurrence. This essay aims to explore and propose such solutions.
2. The Tragic Cost of Human Trafficking
Human trafficking is a grave vice that has unfortunately gained prominence in many
African countries. Based on interactions with survivors, this essay captures it as the recruitment,
transportation, transfer, harboring, or receipt of individuals through threats, force, coercion,
abduction, fraud, deception, abuse of power or vulnerability, or the giving and receiving of
payment or benefits to control another person, explicitly for the purpose of ill treatment. In
West Africa, Sawadogo Wilfried Relwende highlights that trafficking activities follow clearly
established routes across countries such as Senegal, Gambia, Côte d’Ivoire, Benin, Togo,
Nigeria, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, and Gabon. Other key routes include those
along Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, and Chad.5 Victims are often forced into various
forms of exploitation. They become commercial sex workers, sex slaves, or coerced into same-
sex relationships. Others serve in bars, restaurants, hotels, and brothels. Some victims endure
hazardous conditions working in factories, mines, and construction sites. A significant number
are forced into street begging, while others are recruited as child soldiers. Perhaps the most
harrowing trend is the increasing prevalence of organ harvesting, which has tragically become
alarmingly common.
In view of the above, according to Oyekanmi, many victims of human trafficking,
particularly women and girls, are unaware of the harsh realities that await them in their
1 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2022 (UNODC 2022).
2 International Organization for Migration, World Migration Report 2022 (IOM 2021).
3 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (n 1).
4 National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons, 2023 Annual Report (NAPTIP 2023).
5 Sawadogo Wilfried Relwende, West African Human Trafficking Routes and Trends (UNODC 2018).
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destination countries.6 They often believe that life abroad will be comfortable and full of
opportunities, only to encounter danger and exploitation upon arrival. In fact, some desperate
Nigerians who set out on foot may never reach their destinations due to the many risks they
face along the journey. This highlights the fact that the dangers of human trafficking begin the
moment victims leave their homes. The risks are enormous. Many are coerced into the sex trade
and subjected to constant abuse. Forced to engage in sexual activities with numerous strangers
daily in order to repay their traffickers, victims frequently suffer serious health problems. These
include sexually transmitted infections, mental health issues such as panic attacks and
depression, and substance abuse as a means of coping with trauma. In addition, the poor hygiene
and limited access to medical care in these exploitative environments leave victims vulnerable
to chronic and sometimes terminal illnesses.
Several factors contribute to the rise in human trafficking. However, the most frequently
cited "push factor," as shared by survivors, is the desire for a better life.7 Traffickers exploit the
desperation of individuals seeking better opportunities abroad, deceiving them with false
promises of employment, education, or a brighter future.8 Tragically, many of these victims end
up trapped in cycles of abuse and exploitation, with no clear path to escape. According to some
interviews with survivors, the journey to Europe is fraught with peril. They recount horrifying
experiences, such as enduring extreme thirst to the point of pleading for each other’s urine to
quench their parched throats.9 Despite the horrors and suffering endured by victims, this desire
remains a powerful motivator for many. Alarmingly, the traumatic experiences of survivors fail
to deter others from pursuing the same perilous path. Rationalizations such as "something must
kill a man" offer misguided solace, propelling individuals to embark on dangerous journeys
despite full awareness of the risks involved. This dire situation is encapsulated by a
Cameroonian proverb: "If money were to be found in the trees, most people would be married
to monkeys." This sentiment aptly reflects the extent to which the pursuit of wealth, riches, and
fame drives human trafficking in Africa.
In this light, one might conclude that these are indeed troubling times to be African,
marked by a pervasive obsession with material gain at great human cost. To further emphasize
the point above, Shemang Ben and Takambou Mimi Mefo highlight that an increasing number
of Africans are being exploited and trafficked along migration routes to Europe and the Middle
East.10 This alarming trend underscores the need for urgent transferable ideas and innovation to
tackle human trafficking.
3. African Values as Shields against Trafficking: Contentment
Although some African countries have implemented measures to combat human
trafficking, these efforts often fall short, further emboldening traffickers. This is evident in the
weak law enforcement and corruption in many African countries, where anti-trafficking laws
exist but are poorly enforced due to limited resources, lack of training among law enforcement
personnel, and widespread corruption. This creates loopholes that traffickers exploit with little
6 Oyekanmi Maryam, Understanding the Experiences of Nigerian Victims of Trafficking (unpublished manuscript,
2024).
7 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2022 (UNODC 2022).
8 International Organization for Migration, World Migration Report 2022 (IOM 2021).
9 Human Rights Watch, No Escape: Abuse of Migrants in Libya (HRW 2019).
10 Shemang Ben and Takambou Mimi Mefo, Human Trafficking in Africa: The Exploitation Across Borders (2021)
African Journal of Migration Studies 45.
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fear of prosecution. In fact, the UNODC notes that in regions like West and Central Africa,
prosecutions and convictions of traffickers remain disproportionately low despite high levels
of trafficking. 11Even more, there is also the absence of well-structured rehabilitation centers,
counseling services, and reintegration programs for victims often discourages reporting and
undermines the fight against trafficking. According to the Global Slavery Index, even when
victims are rescued, many receive inadequate support, leaving them vulnerable to re-
trafficking.12
From the above, it is clear that many interventions are top-down approaches that rely
solely on government action. While the creation of specialized agencies to address trafficking
is commendable, these efforts would benefit greatly from the inclusion of young people in
decision-making processes. A bottom-up approach that engages citizens and bodies, aside from
the government, can foster collaboration and enhance the effectiveness of anti-trafficking
initiatives. To contribute to the fight against human trafficking, this essay employs an auto-
ethnographic method, drawing on some personal experiences to explore potential solutions.
To begin with, a key argument is that the survival and stability of any society depend
significantly on the values that guide its people. In this context, virtues such as contentment can
play a vital role in reengineering African society and reducing the prevalence of human
trafficking. Contentment is the state of happiness and satisfaction with what one has.
Unfortunately, many people lack this virtue, leading them to pursue harmful ambitions that
often result in ruin and despair. Contentment does not imply complacency or a lack of desire
for self-improvement. Instead, it means appreciating what one has while working toward a
better future. Many people struggle with discontentment, wishing they had been born into
wealthier families. The role of parents in guiding their children towards the right path cannot
be overemphasised. I vividly remember my father’s words in Igbo: Ndidi na dota obi uto,
meaning “patience attracts happiness.” This proverb, often repeated, served as both a reminder
and a warning against impatience and greed. It emphasized the importance of accepting that
one may not always get what one desires. The proverb also teaches that achieving dreams takes
time and that the path to success is often long, winding, and unpredictable. This wisdom played
a significant role in my life, especially when I was tempted to join a group of school friends
planning to leave the country illegally in pursuit of greener pastures. In contemporary African
society, contentment is increasingly undervalued, often dismissed as old-fashioned. The
pervasive "get rich quick" mentality dominates, fueled by a society that celebrates immediate
success and material wealth.
Given this backdrop, this essay argues that contentment should be a core value infused
in a subject, to be taught in schools at all levels, from elementary to tertiary education. Early
and consistent exposure to these teachings can help young Africans combat the destructive
effects of greed. This mindset can empower them to make a positive impact on a global scale.
As Africans continue to aspire for better lives, it is crucial to cultivate a sense of perspective
and self-awareness. While the pursuit of progress is valid, Africans must remember their
families, communities, and cultural heritage. The Igbo proverb Ihere adighi eme onye ara, ma
nde muru ya—“A madman is not ashamed of his situation, but his people are”—aptly captures
this sentiment. It reminds Africans that an individual’s actions reflect not just on themselves
11 UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2020 (UNODC 2020).
12 Walk Free Foundation, Global Slavery Index 2018 (2018) 12 <https:www.reliefweb.int/report/world/global-
slavery-index-2018> accessed 20 April 2025.
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but also on their family and society. Allowing greed to take root has broader implications for
how Africans are perceived by others, particularly Europeans.
In view of the above, parents can lead the way in instilling contentment and discipline
by setting limits for themselves, as children often learn best by observing actions rather than
listening to words. In African culture, it is commonly said that children emulate what they see
rather than what they are told. By deliberately modeling and practicing these values, parents
can guide their children toward developing them. Gratitude, in particular, is a powerful way to
cultivate contentment. In the past, proverbs played a significant role in character formation and
moral education within African families.13 These proverbs were used to teach values like
gratitude, regardless of how little one had. They emphasized that chasing quick money could
lead to ruin. To revive this diminishing tradition, parenting must become deliberate and
proactive, starting early in a child’s life. This early education is especially critical as human
traffickers often prey on individuals who are experiencing hardship or lack strong support
systems. Parents who are actively involved in their children’s formative years can help build
resilience, making them less susceptible to manipulation by traffickers. Strong family values
not only help children navigate challenges but also serve as a moral compass for families in
determining right from wrong during difficult situations. Consequently, there is a pressing need
to establish a Family Law Act across African nations, mandating that parents exercise their
responsibilities toward their children. Unlike the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of
the Child, which is a specific human rights instrument adopted by the Organization of African
Unity (now AU) in 1990 and entered into force in 1999, 14the African Law Act allows African
countries to pass their own anti-human trafficking laws based on regional guidelines.15
Therefore, it is imperative for Africans, especially the youth, to exercise caution and critical
thinking in their choices. Adopting this bottom-up approach that emphasizes personal
responsibility, contentment, and cultural pride can help tackle the root causes of human
trafficking and reframe Africa’s narrative on the global stage.
In light of the above, it is essential to revive and reinforce family values within African
households. This can be achieved through the use of African proverbs, which have always held
foundational significance in many African societies. They are commonly regarded as
expressions or sayings that encapsulate wisdom, truth, morals, experiences, lessons, and life
advice. Proverbs were primarily used to teach cultural values and reinforce societal norms. Over
time, they served as tools for advising, training, or warning individuals. Consequently, many
African cultures relied on proverbs to communicate family values and address social issues.
Family values refer to the shared beliefs, ethics, priorities, and worldviews that bind family
members. These behavioral codes provide structure, define roles within the family, and guide
decision-making. They include principles such as honesty, kindness, love, respect, and good
behavior. As the smallest unit of society, the family plays a foundational role in shaping the
character and future of its members. Parents bear a significant responsibility in ensuring the
healthy and secure upbringing of their children. Family values begin with the parents, who are
13 Kwesi Yankah, Speaking for the Chief: Okyeame and the Politics of Akan Royal Oratory (Indiana University
Press 1995).
14 Organisation of African Unity, African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (adopted 11 July 1990,
entered into force 29 November 1999).
15 African Union, Ouagadougou Action Plan to Combat Trafficking in Human Beings, Especially Women and
Children (2006).
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Chair of African Legal Studies
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their children’s first teachers. This idea is encapsulated in the Igbo proverb: Nwa na afu na ndi
nwe ya nwere ndidi na afo ojuju ga inwe kwa ndidi na afo ojuju, meaning, “If a child observes
that their parents are content, they will strive to emulate that contentment.” Given that proverbs
often carry deep cultural values, this essay suggests that parents should regularly use proverbs
to teach and guide their children. Proverbs are not only a source of wisdom but also a way to
instill morals and cultural pride. However, despite the critical role parents play in their
children’s lives, it has significantly declined.
A major contributing factor to this decline is the demanding nature of modern life. Many
parents, particularly working parents, struggle to dedicate sufficient time to their children’s
growth and well-being due to professional and other commitments. This lack of engagement
often leaves children feeling neglected, which can negatively impact their development and
emotional stability. Additionally, economic hardship has left many parents unable to provide
adequately for their children. These children, left vulnerable, often rely on friends or external
influences for support. This is evident in studies that have shown that children from
economically disadvantaged households are more susceptible to exploitation and external
influence, as poverty often limits parental capacity to provide supervision, support, and basic
needs.16 Tragically, traffickers prey on this vulnerability, deceiving children with false promises
of a better life and leading them into the clutches of human trafficking. To counter this, instilling
the correct values and maintaining an active presence in a child’s life are essential. When
parents model contentment, kindness, and resilience, children are less likely to fall victim to the
manipulations of traffickers. By nurturing strong family bonds and prioritizing the transmission
of positive values, families can act as the first line of defense against the scourge of human
trafficking.
4. Turning Social Media into a Weapon against Human Trafficking
Targeted education for young people through social media is essential, as this medium
has dramatically reshaped the way individuals interact. With globalization and the widespread
use of mobile phones, social media has become a double-edged sword in the fight against
human trafficking. While traffickers exploit these platforms to further their operations, social
media also holds the potential to combat this menace effectively. According to a United Nations
report, “Human traffickers have become adept at using internet platforms, including social
media channels and webpages, to recruit victims and attract clients.”17 Similarly, Chon
Katherine highlights that “Traffickers use technology to increase the efficiency of their
operations, remotely identifying and recruiting individuals on a larger scale than what is
possible through traditional offline schemes.”18 This underscores the growing concern that
traffickers are abusing social media to gather insights into people’s lives and exploit their
vulnerabilities.
However, despite its misuse, social media can also play a significant role in combating
human trafficking. It can be a powerful tool for education and outreach, enabling young people
to access vital information about the risks of trafficking and effective prevention strategies.
Additionally, survivors and advocates can utilize these platforms to establish support networks,
share their experiences, and cultivate a sense of community. Social media can empower
survivor leaders to engage with others, provide guidance, and drive collective action to fight
16 UNICEF, Child Poverty and Vulnerability in Sub-Saharan Africa
17 UNODC, ‘Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2020’ (2021) 63.
18 Chon Katherine, ‘Technology’s Complicated Relationship with Human Trafficking’ (2022) <
https://acf.gov/archive/otip/blog/2022/07/technologys-complicated-relationship-human-trafficking > accessed 21
December 2024.
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human trafficking. By leveraging the same platforms that traffickers use, society can turn the
tide and use social media as a force for awareness, prevention, and empowerment in the fight
against this pervasive crime. As technology continues to play an integral role in personal and
professional lives, it is essential to harness its potential as an innovative tool in responding to
human trafficking.
Social media, in particular, offers significant opportunities for educating people about
the dangers of trafficking. For instance, creating a dedicated Facebook page for this cause can
help raise awareness by hosting events where films on human trafficking are viewed and
discussed. Such activities educate the public about the existence of modern slavery, the
deceptive tactics employed by traffickers, often referred to as ‘Burgas’19—and the importance
of rejecting their enticing offers. Awareness campaigns should also provide practical tips on
identifying traffickers and their modus operandi. Through consistent and targeted education on
social media, people can become more equipped to recognize potential traffickers and protect
themselves. In addition to pages and campaigns, hashtags represent another powerful method
of combating human trafficking. Hashtags increase the visibility of content, allowing it to reach
the right audience, spark new conversations, and broaden engagement on social media
platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, TikTok, LinkedIn, and Instagram.20 For example,
Instagram allows users to include up to 30 hashtags per post, enabling them to reach a wider
audience. While irrelevant hashtags can sometimes attract the wrong audience, the benefits of
this tool far outweigh the drawbacks when used strategically. By deploying meaningful and
targeted hashtags, awareness of human trafficking can be amplified, creating ripples of
understanding and action across the digital landscape.
5. The Moral Power of Religion in Africa’s Anti-Trafficking Fight
Another critical resource in the fight against human trafficking in Africa is the
prominence of religious organizations. Religion, as a source of moral authority and values,
plays a vital role in shaping societal behavior. Churches, in particular, can serve as natural
allies in this fight, offering moral clarity and healing for victims who have endured
tremendous suffering. Clergy members and pastors can leverage their platforms—such as
pulpits and fellowship gatherings—to counsel victims, raise awareness, and teach values
like contentment and integrity. Churches should actively build on their unique opportunities
and assets, partnering with various denominations and sectors to work comprehensively
against human trafficking. For instance, dedicating a specific time each year to raising
awareness about human trafficking can have a lasting impact. Furthermore, while traffickers
often exploit religion to manipulate and control their victims, religion can also be a powerful
tool for resistance when deployed appropriately. By fostering a culture of collaboration and
moral advocacy, religious groups can significantly contribute to the eradication of human
trafficking in Africa.
6. Universities as Frontlines in the Fight against Trafficking
In the academic realm, it is imperative for African youths to acquire the knowledge
and skills needed to recognize and resist the tactics of human traffickers. Raising awareness
and promoting focused socialization through the teaching of human trafficking is essential.
Educating young people about the risks and realities of trafficking will equip them with the
attitudes necessary to reject enticing offers and actively participate in efforts to eliminate
19 "Burga" does not have a widely recognized definition; however, in the context of human trafficking in Libya,
it refers to individuals who claim ownership of victims, often migrants-and demand repayment of the money
spent to transport them before granting their freedom.
20 Jean Burgess and Joshua Bruns, ‘Twitter and its Power to Shape Public Discourse’ in Axel Bruns and others
(eds), The Routledge Companion to Social Media and Politics (Routledge 2016) 123
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Chair of African Legal Studies
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this scourge. A lack of information in academic settings, however, risks perpetuating
ignorance and neglecting the profound social implications of trafficking for Africa’s present
and future. Universities, as centers of learning and development, offer an ideal platform to
address this gap. For instance, many universities require new students to take general
courses that provide foundational knowledge. Incorporating human trafficking as a subject
within such courses ensures that all students are exposed to its realities as they begin their
academic journeys. This is particularly crucial because universities are environments where
young people often encounter diverse individuals, some of whom may attempt to lure them
into trafficking schemes. By studying this issue and acquiring the necessary knowledge,
students are better equipped to navigate such challenges and make informed decisions.
7. Using Films to Fight Human Trafficking
In addition to academic efforts, community-based initiatives are equally vital in
tackling human trafficking. Hosting regular awareness events, such as bi-weekly screenings
of films about human trafficking, can significantly impact youths and their parents. For
example, after watching the films Mvera21 and Goated Life,22 I recommended them to young
girls in my community and invited them for a discussion afterward. During our
conversation, we explored the concept of modern slavery, how it manifests, and the tactics
traffickers use to deceive victims. Such films can serve as powerful tools for education and
awareness, providing Africans with vivid depictions of how trafficking operates and the
consequences for its victims. By making these movies widely available and fostering
discussions around them, communities can better prepare their youth to recognize and resist
the threat of trafficking.
8. Conclusion
This essay represents my perspective on identifying innovative solutions and
transferable ideas for tackling human trafficking. It seeks to unpack the nature of human
trafficking, its effects, and how it can be curtailed in African societies, where many individuals
daily face the harrowing decision to leave their homes in pursuit of a better life. To effectively
address this issue, a comprehensive bottom-up approach is necessary to complement the efforts
already made by governments in raising awareness for human trafficking prevention.
Collaborative action, through partnerships and the sharing of knowledge, is the key to
combating this vice. When everyone plays their part, society can move closer to living in a
world free of human trafficking. It is essential that responses to this crisis are well thought out
to ensure the safety and well-being of all involved. By valuing one another and recognizing that
no one can do everything, but each of us has an important role to play, we can make significant
strides in the fight against human trafficking
21 Official Trailer: YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GEz9RceqAZo accessed 22 December 2024.
Kenyan Vibe Article: Kenyan Vibe, https://www.kenyanvibe.com/mvera-becomes-first-coastal-film-on-netflix/
accessed 22 December 2024.
22 Official Trailer: YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxlwV2-liBM accessed 22 December 2024.
New Arab Article: The New Arab, https://www.newarab.com/news/gulf-states-protest-netflixs-goat-life-ignore-
kafala accessed 22 December 2024.
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Collection of Essays: Your Voice in Tackling Human Trafficking in Africa
49
Chair of African Legal Studies
49
“Many vulnerable young people leave Africa after being coerced into drug trafficking
operations outside the continent. Teenagers are lured into fake job opportunities only to
become victims of sex and human trafficking networks. Men and women are duped into
leaving their families for better job prospects. Shockingly, children are sold or given away in
exchange for money across Africa.” These are some instances that detail the stories of human
trafficking in Africa -BBC Documentary.
